World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/curlew): Curlew — wildlife guide.

## Why are curlews declining in Britain?
Breeding habitat loss — drainage of wet meadows, early hay and silage cuts destroying nests, moorland change, and predation on ground nests. Decline is among the steepest of any British breeding bird.

## Are curlews endangered?
Near Threatened globally. Red-listed in Britain. Breeding numbers have fallen by more than half in recent decades across much of the range.

## Where do eurasian curlews live?
Eurasian Curlews live in Breeds on moorland, grassland and wet meadows across Europe and Asia, Winters on coasts and estuaries; steeply declining British breeder. The Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata) is a large wader with a long downcurved bill and bubbling call, breeding on moor and wet grassland; British numbers have fallen catastrophically — Red-listed — and the species is Near Threatened globally.

## Are eurasian curlews dangerous?
The bird persists on upland moors, hay meadows managed late for nesting and coastal grazing marshes where sympathetic farming continues. Give wild eurasian curlews space; do not corner or handle them.

## How long do eurasian curlews live?
A precise wild lifespan for eurasian curlews is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata) is a large wader with a long downcurved bill and bubbling call, breeding on moor and wet grassland; British numbers have fallen catastrophically — Red-listed — and the species is Near Threatened globally. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is an eurasian curlew?
An Eurasian Curlew is about Red-listed UK (Catastrophic breeding decline — lost from much of lowland Britain). The Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata) is a large wader with a long downcurved bill and bubbling call, breeding on moor and wet grassland; British numbers have fallen catastrophically — Red-listed — and the species is Near Threatened globally. Conservation status: Red-listed; catastrophic breeding decline.

## What do curlews eat?
Worms, beetle larvae and invertebrates probed from soft ground with the long downcurved bill. Winter estuary birds also take crabs and molluscs.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/lapwing): Lapwing — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is a crested farmland wader with peewit call and tumbling display; British breeding numbers have fallen steeply — Red-listed — as wet meadows drained and spring nesting habitat vanished, and the species is Near Threatened globally.

## Introduction
The northern lapwing — peewit, tewit, green plover — is a crested wader of open farmland and wet grassland. Iridescent green-black above, white below, with a wispy crest and broad rounded wings, it displays in tumbling flight over breeding fields, calling the peewit that names it in dialect.

Lapwings nest in a scrape on open ground — spring cereals, rough pasture, wet meadows, moorland edge — laying well-camouflaged eggs that fail when fields are drilled, rolled, mown or sprayed too early. British breeding lapwings have declined steeply — Red-listed — as mixed farmland disappeared, wet grassland drained and autumn sowing replaced spring crops that once left bare fallow for nesting.

Near Threatened globally, lapwings are the wader people remember from childhood fields — flocks over winter plough, tumbling display over summer pasture. That memory outlasts the birds in much of lowland England and Wales. Recovery needs wet grassland, spring cropping, fallow and sympathetic grazing — the farmland architecture lapwings evolved with, and which intensive arable removed field by field.

Lapwing was once so common that farmers timed spring work around nesting fields — that cultural integration broke when autumn sowing and drainage removed the bare ground and wet pasture lapwings require.

## Takeaway
Lapwings are crested farmland waders — green-black above, tumbling display flight, peewit call.

## Takeaway
Nest in ground scrape on arable, pasture and wet meadow — destroyed by early field operations.

## Takeaway
British breeding lapwings Red-listed after steep decline — lost from much of lowland farmland.

## Takeaway
Near Threatened globally — farmland intensification across Europe.

## Takeaway
Winter flocks on plough and pasture are a mix of breeders and continental visitors.

## Takeaway
Recovery needs wet grassland, spring cereals, fallow and delayed field operations in nesting season.

## Takeaway
Lapwings mob predators in communal defence — distraction display draws attention from nest.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/lapwing): Lapwing — wildlife guide.

## Peewit display over the breeding field
Male lapwings establish territory from February, calling peewit from the ground and performing tumbling display flight — broad wings flapping slowly, crest erect, calling continuously. The display advertises territory to females and warns rivals.

Nests are scrapes in bare or short vegetation — spring barley, rough grazing, wet meadow, moorland edge. Eggs are cryptic against earth and crop stubble; chicks leave the nest within hours and feed themselves, brooded by parents. The mobile chick strategy fails when the field is rolled, sprayed or harvested before fledging.

Lapwings mob avian predators — diving at crows, gulls and raptors — and perform broken-wing distraction to draw mammalian predators from the nest. Communal defence helps where lapwings still nest in small colonies. A single peewit displaying over a field in March is advertising intent — whether the field still allows success depends on what happens to that crop in May and June.

Lapwing chicks feed themselves on invertebrates in short vegetation — parents lead them to food but do not provision them as songbirds do. Chick food depends on wet soil invertebrates near the nest scrape; dry springs and pesticide reduction of soil fauna fail broods even when nests survive initial field operations.

Lapwing double-brooding is rare in Britain — most pairs raise one brood per season, so single nest failure in a mown field ends the year's reproductive attempt entirely. That makes calendar clash with farming operations especially damaging compared with species that renest after failure.

Lapwing roosts on inland lakes and estuaries in winter can hold mixed flocks of British and continental birds — roost disturbance at dusk affects winter survival though breeding habitat remains the primary crisis.

## Farmland change and the nesting calendar clash
Lapwings evolved with spring-sown cereals, bare fallow, wet pasture and mixed farming that left nesting windows open from March through June. Agricultural intensification removed those windows: autumn sowing covers fields in winter wheat before lapwings nest; drainage removed wet meadows; silage cuts hay before chicks fledge; pesticide reduced invertebrate food for chicks.

The result is predictable: nest destruction by field operations is the primary cause of breeding failure on arable land. A lapwing nest in spring barley may succeed if the crop is sown late and rolled before nesting but not after; an autumn-sown wheat field offers no bare ground at the right time.

Where lapwings persist — coastal grazing marshes, upland fringes, nature reserves with late-cut meadows, spring cereal schemes — management is explicit about timing. Lapwing recovery is a calendar problem as much as a habitat problem. The peewit call is easy to hear; the field operation that destroys the nest is often invisible to anyone not farming the land.

Head-starting and electric fencing projects at nature reserves demonstrate that lapwing breeding success can be raised when habitat and predation are managed together — fenced exclosures on wet meadows produce fledglings that help stabilise local populations while wider farmland change continues.

Silage cutting in May and June destroys lapwing broods on grassland as hay cutting does — the switch from hay to silage removed the late-July window that once allowed lapwing chicks to fledge on meadow fields.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/lapwing): Lapwing — wildlife guide.

## Red list, Near Threatened and the winter flock illusion
British lapwing breeding numbers fell by more than half from the 1980s — Red-listed, with range contraction across lowland England and Wales. Ireland and the Netherlands show parallel losses. IUCN Near Threatened status reflects European-wide farmland wader decline.

Winter flocks on lowland plough can still number hundreds — birds from Britain, continental Europe and beyond — creating an illusion of abundance. Breeding surveys separated the trends: winter visitors masked local breeding extinction.

The lapwing is a conservation icon for farmland bird decline alongside grey partridge, yellow wagtail and corn bunting — species that shared the mixed farm and lost it together. Seeing lapwings in winter does not mean lapwings breed nearby — it often means the opposite.

Lapwing was once a common farmland bird across lowland Britain — folk names and dialect poetry record abundance that surveys no longer find. Cultural memory of peewits exceeds current breeding distribution, which makes public engagement easier but also masks how recent and steep the collapse has been.

Predator management for lapwing on reserves is controversial but used where breeding density is critically low — fox control alone fails without habitat; habitat alone fails where fox predation on ground nests is the limiting factor on small isolated fields.

## What lapwing recovery looks like on the ground
Lapwing recovery schemes use wet grassland creation, fallow plots within arable rotations, spring cereal options, delayed mowing of meadows until midsummer, and predator management in key areas. Agri-environment payments that fund these measures exist where policy prioritises farmland waders.

Reporting breeding lapwings — display, nest scrape, chicks — contributes to monitoring that tracks recovery. Every field with tumbling peewits in spring is a site worth protecting through harvest and grazing timing.

The lapwing connects cultural memory — grandparents' stories of field-edge nests — to measurable collapse. Near Threatened globally, Red-listed in Britain, recoverable where wet meadow and spring arable return to landscapes that currently grow winter wheat to the fence line. The peewit call is the sound of a calendar that modern farming forgot.

Farmland wader recovery clusters lapwing with golden plover, snipe and curlew — shared need for wet grassland, late cuts and spring cropping. Agri-environment options that fund fallow and wet pasture help multiple species from one field management package rather than species-by-species intervention.

Lapwing eggs were once collected for food in rural Britain — historical abundance is documented in old recipes and farm accounts. That cultural memory contrasts sharply with Red List status today.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education for farmland birds in steep decline. The lapwing is Near Threatened globally and Red-listed in Britain — peewit call a memory in fields that now hold no nest scrape.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/lapwing): Lapwing — wildlife guide.

## Why are lapwings called peewits?
From the distinctive 'peewit' call — two syllables repeated in flight and from the ground. Regional names include tewit and green plover.

## Why are lapwings declining?
Loss of nesting habitat — drainage of wet meadows, autumn sowing replacing spring crops, early silage cuts, field operations destroying ground nests, and reduced chick food from pesticide use.

## Are lapwings endangered?
Near Threatened globally. Red-listed in Britain. Breeding decline is steep; winter flocks can still look abundant but mask local breeding loss.

## Where do lapwings nest?
Ground scrape in spring cereals, rough pasture, wet meadow and moorland edge — open fields where timing of farming operations determines success or failure.

## Where do northern lapwings live?
Northern Lapwings live in Farmland, wet meadows and moorland across Eurasia, Steeply declining British breeder; winter visitor flocks on lowland fields. The northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is a crested farmland wader with peewit call and tumbling display; British breeding numbers have fallen steeply — Red-listed — as wet meadows drained and spring nesting habitat vanished, and the species is Near Threatened globally.

## Are northern lapwings dangerous?
British breeding lapwings have declined steeply — Red-listed — as mixed farmland disappeared, wet grassland drained and autumn sowing replaced spring crops that once left bare fallow for nesting. Give wild northern lapwings space; do not corner or handle them.

## How long do northern lapwings live?
A precise wild lifespan for northern lapwings is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is a crested farmland wader with peewit call and tumbling display; British breeding numbers have fallen steeply — Red-listed — as wet meadows drained and spring nesting habitat vanished, and the species is Near Threatened globally. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/hornbill): Hornbill — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Hornbills are tropical forest birds of Africa and Asia with massive casqued bills; females seal themselves in tree-cavity nests, species disperse forest seeds, and family status ranges from Least Concern to Critically Endangered through logging, hunting and casque trade.

## Introduction
Hornbills are large tropical birds named for the hollow casque — often dramatic in size and colour — mounted on a massive bill. They occur in the forests of sub-Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia, from the great hornbill (Buceros bicornis) of Indian and Southeast Asian rainforest to the smaller red-billed hornbills of African savanna woodland. None occur wild in Britain; they appear in searches through wildlife media, zoo visits and conservation news from the tropics.

Hornbill ecology centres on forest trees. Most species nest in trunk cavities; the female seals herself inside with mud and faeces, leaving only a slit through which the male passes food — a strategy that protects eggs and chicks from predators but requires large old trees with suitable holes. Hornbills eat fruit, insects and small animals, and are important seed dispersers for forest trees with large fruit.

Family status spans Least Concern to Critically Endangered. Forest logging, hunting and capture for the cagebird trade have eliminated hornbills from much of their range. The helmeted hornbill's solid casque is carved as 'red ivory' — driving Critically Endangered status. A family overview matches how people search: 'hornbill' as tropical flagship, not a single species.

Hornbill searches from Britain reflect documentary exposure and zoo visits — honest education connects that interest to tropical forest loss and illegal casque trade rather than treating hornbills as exotic curiosities without conservation context.

## Takeaway
Hornbills are large tropical birds with casqued bills — African and Asian forest, not British wildlife.

## Takeaway
Females seal themselves in tree-cavity nests; males feed the family through a narrow slit.

## Takeaway
Important seed dispersers for tropical forest trees with large fruit.

## Takeaway
Status varies: great hornbill Vulnerable; helmeted hornbill Critically Endangered from casque hunting.

## Takeaway
Require old trees with large cavities — logging removes nest sites directly.

## Takeaway
Helmeted hornbill casques traded as 'red ivory' — major poaching pressure.

## Takeaway
Zoo populations support education and captive breeding for some threatened species.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/hornbill): Hornbill — wildlife guide.

## The casque and the bill — what hornbills are
Hornbill bills are among the largest in birds relative to body size — often brightly coloured with a casque of hollow keratin atop the upper mandible. Function varies: amplification of calls, sexual selection, species recognition. In the helmeted hornbill of Southeast Asia, the casque is solid keratin — traded as red ivory for carving, which drives illegal hunting independent of meat or feathers.

Plumage ranges from the black-and-white great hornbill with yellow throat to African species with red bills and grey or brown bodies. Sexes often differ — male great hornbill has red eyes, female white. Flight is heavy, with loud wingbeats audible through forest canopy.

Hornbills are not related to British birds despite search overlap with 'hornbill' curiosity from documentaries and zoos. They belong to tropical forest ecosystems where their size and seed dispersal link them to old-growth trees.

Hornbill fruit diet ties them to specific tree species — figs, nutmeg-family fruits and large drupes that smaller birds cannot swallow whole. Forest fragmentation removes both fruiting trees and cavity-bearing old growth; hornbills need large home ranges that intact forest provides and fragmented plantation forest cannot.

Hornbill casque size varies by sex and age — in most species the casque is hollow and lightweight; only helmeted hornbill casque is solid and trade-targeted. Understanding that distinction matters for trade enforcement and public messaging about which species face casque poaching.

Hornbill flight is heavy but capable — birds commute long distances between roosting and fruiting trees daily. Home range size makes small forest reserves insufficient for large hornbill species that need landscape-scale forest cover.

## Sealed nest — female imprisoned for survival
Hornbill nesting is unique. The pair selects a natural cavity in a large tree; the female enters, sheds flight feathers, and walls the entrance with mud, droppings and fruit pulp — leaving a slit too narrow for most predators. She lays eggs, incubates and broods chicks inside; the male brings food to the slit throughout.

If the male is killed — hunting, collision, predation — the female and chicks die sealed inside. The strategy trades female mobility for nest security and makes hornbills dependent on both old trees with cavities and intact forest where males can forage widely.

Chicks emerge when ready to fly; the female breaks out with them. The nest cavity may be reused in later years if the tree stands. Logging that removes old trees removes nest sites for decades until replacement trees mature.

Ground hornbills of Africa — a related group — walk rather than fly between forest patches; forest hornbills fly canopy routes. Both groups share heavy dependence on mature trees and face hunting and habitat loss, but British searches for 'hornbill' usually mean Asian or African forest species seen in media, not ground hornbills.

Female hornbills moult remige feathers while sealed in the nest — they cannot fly until emerging with chicks. Total dependence on the male during incubation and brooding makes hornbill nesting uniquely vulnerable to male mortality from hunting or collision.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/hornbill): Hornbill — wildlife guide.

## Forest loss, hunting and the helmeted hornbill crisis
Hornbills need contiguous forest with fruiting trees and cavity-bearing old growth. Southeast Asian and African deforestation for palm oil, logging and agriculture has reduced range across multiple species. Hunting for bushmeat affects African hornbills; the cagebird trade takes chicks and adults.

The helmeted hornbill crisis is specific: solid casques are carved like ivory for the illegal wildlife trade — 'red ivory' — decimating populations across Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Critically Endangered, the species is the clearest example of hornbill decline driven by a single commodity rather than general habitat loss.

Great hornbill, rhinoceros hornbill and wrinkled hornbill are Vulnerable — forest specialists losing range as lowland rainforest contracts. African forest hornbills face parallel pressures at varying intensity by region.

CITES listing for threatened hornbill species restricts international trade in live birds and casques — enforcement at borders complements in-forest anti-poaching. Consumer refusal of carved casques reduces demand that drives helmeted hornbill poaching independent of general deforestation pressure.

Fig trees and other hornbill food plants are often keystone species in tropical forest — hornbill seed dispersal in return maintains forest composition. Lose hornbills and forest tree recruitment changes; lose forest and hornbills disappear. The mutual dependence runs both ways.

## Why hornbills appear in British searches
Britain has no wild hornbills, but searches occur — zoo visits, BBC documentaries, tropical tourism, conservation fundraising imagery. A family guide serves that curiosity honestly: tropical forest birds whose fate is tied to old trees and anti-poaching enforcement thousands of kilometres away.

Captive breeding in zoos supports education and reintroduction for some species — though most hornbill conservation must happen in forest reserves with logging controlled and casque trade suppressed. Buying carved casques or supporting unverified 'hornbill conservation' products can fund the trade that destroys them.

Hornbills connect British public interest to tropical forest integrity — seed dispersers, cavity nesters, casque targets. The family overview sets expectations: not a garden bird, not one status, but a group where forest standing and trade enforcement decide which species survive.

British zoo hornbill exhibits support education and captive breeding for some threatened species — but ex-situ populations cannot replace wild forest standing. Hornbill conservation for searchers in Britain is primarily about informed concern, trade refusal and support for forest protection abroad rather than local habitat action.

Documentary footage of hornbill nest sealing introduced millions of viewers to the behaviour — that exposure drives search interest from countries where hornbills never occur wild, which is why British search traffic needs honest tropical context rather than faux-local guidance.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education for tropical species people search without local context. Hornbills are forest giants — sealed-nest specialists, seed dispersers, and Critically Endangered where casques are carved as red ivory.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/hornbill): Hornbill — wildlife guide.

## Are there hornbills in Britain?
No. Hornbills are tropical birds of African and Asian forest. They appear in British searches through zoos, media and conservation news — not as wild native species.

## Why do hornbills seal the nest?
The female walls herself into a tree cavity with mud and droppings, leaving a food slit. This protects eggs and chicks from predators but makes the nest dependent on the male bringing food — and on old trees with suitable holes.

## What is red ivory?
The solid casque of the helmeted hornbill, illegally traded for carving like elephant ivory. Poaching for casques drives Critically Endangered status.

## Are hornbills endangered?
Family status varies. Helmeted hornbill is Critically Endangered. Great hornbill and several Asian species are Vulnerable. African species range from Least Concern to threatened depending on forest loss and hunting.

## What do hornbills eat?
Mainly fruit — they are important seed dispersers for large forest trees. Many also take insects, small reptiles and mammals.

## Can hornbills be kept as pets?
Large hornbills require vast space and specialised care. Wild capture for trade threatens populations. They are not domestic pets — they are forest birds with complex nesting and dietary needs.

## Where do hornbills live?
Hornbills live in Tropical forests of Africa and Asia, Not native to Britain — flagship tropical forest birds. Hornbills are tropical forest birds of Africa and Asia with massive casqued bills; females seal themselves in tree-cavity nests, species disperse forest seeds, and family status ranges from Least Concern to Critically Endangered through logging, hunting and casque trade.

## Are hornbills dangerous?
Hornbills are not generally dangerous to people. Hornbills are tropical forest birds of Africa and Asia with massive casqued bills; females seal themselves in tree-cavity nests, species disperse forest seeds, and family status ranges from Least Concern to Critically Endangered through logging, hunting and casque trade. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do hornbills live?
A precise wild lifespan for hornbills is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Hornbills are tropical forest birds of Africa and Asia with massive casqued bills; females seal themselves in tree-cavity nests, species disperse forest seeds, and family status ranges from Least Concern to Critically Endangered through logging, hunting and casque trade. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/spider): Spider — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Spiders (order Araneae) are arachnids — not insects — with more than 50,000 described species, all producing silk and most acting as ambush or trap predators; only a small fraction of species have venom medically significant to humans.

## Introduction
Spiders are not insects. They belong to the class Arachnida, alongside scorpions, mites and harvestmen, and the order Araneae holds more than 50,000 described species with estimates of twice that still unnamed. Every spider makes silk — a protein fibre evolved once in the spider lineage and then repurposed into webs, draglines, egg sacs, retreats, ballooning threads and communication lines. Silk is stronger per unit weight than steel and can be tuned from sticky to dry, from stretchy to rigid, by changing the protein mix and spinning speed.

Ecologically, spiders are among the dominant invertebrate predators on land. A single hectare of meadow may contain millions of individuals taking an enormous tonnage of insects and other small prey each year. They are generalists by default but specialists by adaptation: orb-weavers trap flying insects, wolf spiders run down prey on the ground, crab spiders ambush from flowers, and jumping spiders stalk with acute vision and calculated leaps.

Fear of spiders is common and culturally reinforced, but the medical reality is narrower than the reputation. Of thousands of species, only a handful regularly cause serious envenomation in humans, and most spiders you encounter cannot pierce human skin or have venom tuned for insects rather than mammals. Understanding spiders as silk engineers and pest controllers rather than as uniform threats is one of the more useful shifts in everyday natural history.

## Takeaway
Spiders are arachnids, not insects — eight legs, two body segments (cephalothorax and abdomen), no antennae.

## Takeaway
All spiders make silk; orb webs are one architecture among dozens, including sheets, funnels, triangles and single traplines.

## Takeaway
Spiders are major terrestrial predators, removing vast numbers of insects and other invertebrates from ecosystems.

## Takeaway
Jumping spiders (Salticidae) have excellent vision and elaborate courtship displays — the most 'watchable' spider family.

## Takeaway
Most spider bites cause at most local pain; medically important species are concentrated in a few families such as recluse and widow spiders.

## Takeaway
Habitat loss, pesticide use and invasive species threaten narrow-range and cave-dwelling spiders more than house and garden species.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/spider): Spider — wildlife guide.

## Silk: one invention, many engineering solutions
Spider silk begins as a liquid protein gel in specialised glands and solidifies as it is drawn through spinnerets at the rear of the abdomen. Different gland types produce different silks — dragline silk for safety lines, capture silk with glue droplets for webs, swathing silk for wrapping prey, and fine silk for egg sacs. An orb-weaver may combine several types in a single web: non-sticky radial spokes, sticky capture spirals, and a retreat line the spider runs along when disturbed.

Web design is not random. Orb webs intercept flying insects efficiently in open space. Sheet webs and funnel webs suit low vegetation and ground-level prey. The bolas spider goes further: it spins a shortened line with a sticky blob at the end and swings it to snag moths, sometimes releasing moth pheromone mimics to lure targets within range. Silk is also used for dispersal — spiderlings release long threads that catch wind and carry them kilometres in a behaviour called ballooning, which explains how spiders colonise islands and appear on ships at sea.

Materials scientists study spider silk because it combines strength, elasticity and toughness in ways synthetic fibres still struggle to match. Farming silk from spiders is impractical — they are cannibalistic — so research focuses on transferring silk genes into other organisms or synthesising analogous proteins. The biological original remains, for now, ahead of the copy.

## How spiders hunt without webs
Roughly half of spider species do not build prey-capture webs at all. Wolf spiders (Lycosidae) chase prey across the ground using speed and eyesight, often carrying egg sacs attached to their spinnerets. Crab spiders (Thomisidae) sit on flowers, camouflaged to match petals, and seize pollinators that land within reach — a reminder that spiders eat beneficial insects as well as pests, without favouring either.

Jumping spiders (Salticidae) are the most visually oriented hunters. Their principal eyes give acute resolution and depth perception used to plan jumps many times their body length. Many species perform complex courtship dances — leg waves, palp movements, and abdominal displays — that researchers can only fully appreciate under magnification. Net-casting spiders hold a small web between the front legs and throw it over walking prey.

Venom and fangs do the final work. Chelicerae deliver venom that is usually neurotoxic to invertebrates, liquefying tissues that the spider then sucks up as fluid. Spiders cannot eat solid food. Prey size limits are real — a house spider will not tackle a mouse — but large tarantulas and related mygalomorphs take frogs, lizards and small birds on occasion, which feeds disproportionately into spider folklore.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/spider): Spider — wildlife guide.

## Venom, bites and the gap between fear and risk
Almost all spiders are venomous in the technical sense — they use venom to subdue prey — but very few are dangerous to humans. Widow spiders (Latrodectus) and recluse spiders (Loxosceles) are the best-known medical concerns in temperate regions; funnel-web spiders (Atrax and Hadronyche) in Australia are among the few that can kill untreated. Symptoms vary from local necrosis to systemic neurotoxicity depending on species, venom dose and individual sensitivity.

Most alleged spider bites are misattributions. Bacterial infections, ticks, fleas and other arthropods cause lesions blamed on spiders because spiders are visible and feared. When genuine bites occur, they are often 'dry' — no venom injected — or defensive nips as a spider is trapped against skin in clothing or bedding. Exterminating all spiders in a home is neither achievable nor desirable; reducing clutter, shaking out boots and using gloves in sheds address the realistic risk paths.

Conservation attention for spiders focuses on microhabitat specialists: cave endemics, single-island species and dune specialists lost to development and trampling. The majority of house and garden spiders are widespread and secure, but they remain valuable indicators of insect abundance and pesticide load — a garden with healthy spider populations usually has enough prey and few enough broad-spectrum sprays to support them.

## Spiders in ecosystems and human spaces
In agricultural and garden systems, spiders provide free pest suppression. Studies in orchards, rice fields and pasture repeatedly show that spider abundance correlates with lower herbivore damage when pesticide use is restrained. Broad-spectrum insecticides that wipe out spiders often produce rebound pest outbreaks because the predator community recovers more slowly than the pests.

Human buildings extend spider habitat. House spiders exploit corners, window frames and cellar voids where flying and crawling insects concentrate. Seasonal influxes — autumn males wandering in search of mates — trigger panic disproportionate to risk. Education that distinguishes harmless orb-weavers and daddy-long-legs spiders from the small set of species warranting caution reduces both fear and unnecessary killing.

The order-level picture is one of extraordinary evolutionary success with minimal public understanding. Spiders are older than dinosaurs, present on every continent except Antarctica, and woven into folklore from Anansi to Arachne. Treating them as a single frightening category obscures a radiation of silk technologies, hunting strategies and ecological roles that repay curiosity — ideally at a respectful distance, and with a camera rather than a shoe.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education for the animal groups people encounter daily but rarely understand. Spiders are near-universal neighbours; accurate guides reduce fear-driven killing and highlight their role as unpaid pest control.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/spider): Spider — wildlife guide.

## Are spiders insects?
No. Spiders are arachnids — eight legs, two main body parts, no antennae. Insects have six legs and three body segments. Spiders belong to the order Araneae within the class Arachnida.

## Do all spiders spin webs?
All spiders produce silk, but not all build prey-capture webs. Wolf spiders, jumping spiders and many others hunt actively without webs. Silk is still used for draglines, retreats, egg sacs and dispersal.

## How many spider species exist?
More than 50,000 described species, with estimates that the true total may exceed 100,000. New species are described every year, especially from tropical forests and caves.

## Are spider bites dangerous?
Most are harmless to humans. A small number of species — including widow and recluse spiders in some regions — can cause serious symptoms. Many supposed spider bites are caused by other conditions.

## What are jumping spiders?
Members of the family Salticidae — spiders with excellent vision, compact bodies and habit of jumping onto prey. They are often colourful and perform elaborate courtship displays. They are harmless to humans.

## What do spiders eat?
Spiders (order Araneae) are arachnids — not insects — with more than 50,000 described species, all producing silk and most acting as ambush or trap predators; only a small fraction of species have venom medically significant to humans. The guide's ecology sections give the prey or forage detail behind that summary.

## Where do spiders live?
Spiders live in Every continent except Antarctica, From deep caves and mountaintops to coastlines and houses. Spiders (order Araneae) are arachnids — not insects — with more than 50,000 described species, all producing silk and most acting as ambush or trap predators; only a small fraction of species have venom medically significant to humans.

## How long do spiders live?
A precise wild lifespan for spiders is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Spiders (order Araneae) are arachnids — not insects — with more than 50,000 described species, all producing silk and most acting as ambush or trap predators; only a small fraction of species have venom medically significant to humans. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a spider?
A Spider is about Cephalothorax + abdomen; eight legs. Spiders (order Araneae) are arachnids — not insects — with more than 50,000 described species, all producing silk and most acting as ambush or trap predators; only a small fraction of species have venom medically significant to humans. Conservation status: Habitat loss and pesticides for narrow-range species.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bee): Bee — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Bees (superfamily Apoidea) comprise roughly 20,000 species — mostly solitary nesters, not honey-bee-style colonies — and are essential pollinators; wild bee declines are a separate and often more urgent concern than managed honey bee colony losses.

## Introduction
When people say 'bee', they usually picture a honey bee — Apis mellifera, the managed western honey bee kept in hives worldwide. That one species is the tip of a much larger iceberg. The superfamily Apoidea contains roughly 20,000 bee species, and the overwhelming majority are solitary: a single female digs or occupies a nest, provisions cells with pollen and nectar, lays eggs and dies before her offspring emerge. No queen, no workers, no honey stores, no waggle dance.

Bees evolved from wasp ancestors that switched from carnivory to feeding their larvae pollen. That dietary shift drove co-evolution with flowering plants — bees are among the most important pollinators on Earth, and many plants depend on specific bee species for reproduction. Bumblebees buzz-pollinate flowers that hide pollen inside anthers; leafcutter bees cut neat discs from leaves to line nests; mason bees use mud; sweat bees nest in bare ground. Each lifestyle fills a different niche in the same landscape.

This page is the bee group overview. WARN's separate honey bee guide covers Apis mellifera in depth — livestock, colony biology and the distinction between managed honey bees and declining wild pollinators. Understanding bees as a diverse superfamily rather than as a single hive species is the starting point for any serious pollinator conservation.

## Takeaway
Most bee species are solitary — only a few hundred are truly social.

## Takeaway
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are one species among thousands; see WARN's honey bee guide for that species specifically.

## Takeaway
Wild bees — mining bees, mason bees, leafcutters, bumblebees — face habitat loss, pesticides and disease spillover from managed hives.

## Takeaway
Many bees are pollen specialists, tied to particular plant families; lose the flower, lose the bee.

## Takeaway
Bare ground, dead stems, and pesticide-free continuous bloom support wild bees more than adding honey bee hives.

## Takeaway
Bumblebees are social but annual — only mated queens overwinter; colonies do not persist like honey bees.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bee): Bee — wildlife guide.

## Solitary bees: the hidden majority
A solitary bee's life is direct. In spring, a mated female emerges, selects a nest site — a burrow in bare soil, a hollow stem, a beetle hole in wood, a crevice in a wall — and builds cells. Each cell receives a pollen-and-nectar loaf and a single egg. She seals the cell and repeats until her energy is spent. Her offspring develop alone, pupate, and emerge the following season. There is no worker caste to share the load.

Mining bees (Andrena and related genera) are often the first bees active in early spring, nesting in lawns and banks in conspicuous aggregations that alarm homeowners but rarely sting. Mason bees (Osmia) use mud partitions and are excellent orchard pollinators — a few hundred Osmia can match the pollination output of thousands of honey bees on fruit trees because they contact more stigma per visit. Leafcutter bees (Megachile) cut circular leaf pieces with their mandibles, a sign of their presence that gardeners sometimes notice before the bee itself.

Solitary bees are not primitive versions of honey bees waiting to evolve sociality. They are successful, diverse specialists that outnumber social species by an order of magnitude. Conservation that focuses only on hive counts misses the animals actually at risk.

## Social bees beyond the honey bee
True eusociality — overlapping generations, cooperative brood care and reproductive division of labour — evolved multiple times in bees but remains rare. Honey bees (Apis) are the best known, with perennial colonies and tens of thousands of workers. Stingless bees (Meliponini) are tropical and subtropical social bees with complex nest architecture and communication, culturally important in Mesoamerica and parts of Asia and Australia.

Bumblebees (Bombus) occupy a middle ground. Colonies are annual — a queen founds alone in spring, workers appear mid-season, new queens and males are produced in late summer, and only mated queens hibernate. Colony sizes are modest compared with honey bees, typically dozens to a few hundred workers. Bumblebees are essential pollinators of tomatoes, blueberries and many wildflowers because they buzz-pollinate — vibrating their flight muscles to shake pollen loose from poricidal anthers.

Many bumblebee species are declining in Europe and North America from habitat fragmentation, pesticide exposure and pathogen spillover from commercial bumblebee rearing for greenhouse pollination. Several species are now Red Listed regionally even when the genus as a whole is not globally threatened.

## Pollination and plant partnerships
Bees and flowering plants shaped each other over roughly 100 million years. Bee vision extends into ultraviolet, which makes nectar guides on petals visible as landing patterns humans cannot see. Flower shapes match bee bodies — long corollas for long-tongued bees, tight fits that force contact with anthers, colour signals tuned to bee preference for blue, yellow and ultraviolet.

Specialisation can be extreme. Some bees collect pollen from only one plant genus; the loss of that plant removes the bee regardless of other flowers in the landscape. Generalist bees visit many species but may still prefer certain families. Orchard agriculture depends on a handful of bee species brought in for pollination services — a dependency that becomes visible when cold, wet springs keep bees inactive during brief bloom windows.

Pollinator decline is not one problem. Managed honey bee colony losses reflect Varroa mites, pesticides and forage quality — a beekeeping crisis. Wild bee declines reflect habitat loss, nesting-site shortage, pesticide load and climate mismatch between flower phenology and bee emergence. Solutions overlap — pesticide reduction and flower-rich landscapes help both — but adding hives does not substitute for wild bee habitat.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bee): Bee — wildlife guide.

## What helps wild bees
Wild bee conservation is habitat conservation at small scales. Leave bare ground patches for mining bees — lawn, mulch and paving remove nesting substrate. Retain dead stems and beetle holes for cavity nesters; cut stem sections can be bundled horizontally in sheltered spots. Plant a succession of native flowers from early spring through autumn so something is always in bloom. Avoid systemic insecticides, particularly neonicotinoids, which persist in plant tissue and pollen.

Farm margins, roadside verges and garden corners that are left unsprayed function as bee reservoirs in otherwise intensive landscapes. Local native plants support local native bees better than exotic ornamentals chosen only for appearance. The goal is not maximum flower beauty but continuous, accessible forage and safe nesting across the season.

This group page complements WARN's honey bee guide, which addresses Apis mellifera specifically. Keeping the distinction clear — managed livestock versus wild biodiversity — is how pollinator messaging stays honest and effective.

## Reading bee diversity in the field
Identifying bees beyond honey bees and bumblebees rewards close observation. Mining bees often have hairy bodies and nest in bare soil patches — look for small holes with mounded spoil in spring. Mason bees are stout, fast fliers visiting fruit blossoms; many have metallic blue or green sheen. Leafcutter bees carry pollen on the abdomen underside rather than the hind leg, and may show truncated leaf edges on garden roses.

Bumblebees are the large, fuzzy, loud fliers of summer borders — queens emerge early, workers mid-season. Males often have yellow faces and patrol without returning to a nest. Hoverflies mimic bee appearance but have large compound eyes meeting at the top of the head and only one pair of wings — they are flies, not bees, and do not sting.

Recording what visits your garden through citizen-science schemes contributes data on shifting phenology and species presence. The practical outcome is better advice on which plants and nesting features actually work locally, rather than generic 'plant lavender' lists that ignore regional bee faunas.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education where public campaigns and ecological reality often diverge. 'Save the bees' usually means honey bees; the steeper declines are often among wild solitary bees and bumblebees that need habitat, not hives.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bee): Bee — wildlife guide.

## How many bee species are there?
Roughly 20,000 described species worldwide. Most are solitary. Social species — honey bees, bumblebees, stingless bees — are a small fraction of the total.

## How is a bee different from a honey bee?
Honey bee refers specifically to species in genus Apis, especially Apis mellifera — the western honey bee kept in hives. Bees as a group include thousands of solitary and social species that do not make harvestable honey or live in large perennial colonies.

## Are bees endangered?
It varies by species. Most bee species have no IUCN assessment. Regional Red Lists document declines in many bumblebees and specialist solitary bees. Honey bees as a species are not threatened, though colony losses affect beekeepers.

## How long do bees live?
Lifespan varies sharply by species and caste. Managed honey-bee workers live weeks to months, while a queen may survive years. Most wild bees are solitary — a single female provisions cells with pollen and nectar, lays eggs and dies before offspring emerge, with no worker caste.

## How big is a bee?
Bee size spans tiny solitary species to large bumblebees, with roughly 20,000 species worldwide according to this guide's stats. Most are solitary — about 90% nest alone with no workers — yet together they are among Earth's most important pollinators of wild and crop plants.

## Are bees dangerous?
Bees are domesticated animals and are not dangerous to people in the wild-predator sense. Bees (superfamily Apoidea) comprise roughly 20,000 species — mostly solitary nesters, not honey-bee-style colonies — and are essential pollinators; wild bee declines are a separate and often more urgent concern than managed honey bee colony losses. Usual risks are husbandry and handling, not unprovoked attacks.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/beetle): Beetle — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most species-rich animal order — more than 400,000 described species with hardened forewings (elytra) and complete metamorphosis — filling roles from pollinator and pest controller to forest pest and decomposer.

## Introduction
Beetles are the largest order of living things. More than 400,000 species are described, and estimates of the true total run into the millions when tropical diversity is fully sampled. The name Coleoptera means 'sheath-winged': the front pair of wings hardened into elytra that protect the delicate hind wings folded beneath. That armoured body plan let beetles occupy nearly every terrestrial and freshwater niche — herbivore, predator, scavenger, fungivore, parasite and pollinator.

Beetles shaped human history in quiet ways. Dung beetles recycle livestock waste and reduce pasture parasites. Ladybirds control aphids in gardens and fields. Bark beetles kill stressed trees and, in outbreak years, reshape forests. Pollinator beetles visit flowers that evolved before bees dominated daytime pollination. The Colorado potato beetle became a textbook case of pesticide resistance. The emerald ash borer has killed hundreds of millions of ash trees in North America since its accidental introduction.

This page treats beetles as an order — the group overview — not any single species. Individual families range from stag beetles and fireflies to weevils with more species than all vertebrates combined. What unites them is the elytra, chewing mouthparts and complete metamorphosis: egg, larva, pupa, adult. The larval stage is often where the ecological work happens — a grub in wood, a maggot-like predator in soil, a caddis-like water beetle larva in a stream.

## Takeaway
Beetles are the most diverse order of animals — roughly one in four described species is a beetle.

## Takeaway
Elytra (hardened forewings) are the defining feature; hind wings fold under them for flight.

## Takeaway
Larval beetles often live in different habitats and eat different food from the adults — grubs in wood, soil or water.

## Takeaway
Many beetles are beneficial decomposers and pest controllers; others are serious forestry and agriculture pests.

## Takeaway
Fireflies are beetles; their bioluminescent courtship is declining where light pollution and habitat loss intersect.

## Takeaway
Tropical forests hold most undescribed beetle diversity — extinction may outpace naming.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/beetle): Beetle — wildlife guide.

## Why there are so many beetles
Several features explain coleopteran dominance. Elytra protect wings and body when beetles push through soil, bark and leaf litter — environments that would damage softer insects. Chewing mouthparts handle food from pollen to wood to other insects without the specialisation limits of sucking mouthparts. Complete metamorphosis lets larvae and adults partition resources: a leaf-eating grub and a nectar-feeding adult do not compete directly.

Small size helps. Many beetles are a few millimetres long, allowing thousands of species to coexist in one forest by specialising on different microhabitats, host plants or fungi. Weevils (Curculionidae) alone contain more than 60,000 described species — the largest animal family — with snouts adapted for drilling into seeds, stems and nuts. Speciation in beetles often tracks plant diversification, producing tight host associations in herbivorous lineages.

The fossil record extends to the Permian. Beetles survived mass extinctions that removed other groups and radiated into niches opened by flowering plants in the Cretaceous. That deep history means modern beetle communities are both ancient and finely partitioned — which is why invasive beetles can be catastrophic: they enter food webs that have no evolved defence against them.

## Beetles that run ecosystems
Dung beetles (Scarabaeidae and allies) bury and consume animal dung, returning nutrients to soil, reducing fly breeding sites and improving pasture. In Australia, introduced dung beetles were deliberately released to process cattle dung that native scarabs could not handle efficiently — one of the clearer successes in classical biological control. Without dung beetles, pastoral landscapes would be literally buried in waste.

Ground beetles (Carabidae) are nocturnal predators on the soil surface — fast runners with powerful jaws that consume slugs, caterpillars and other invertebrates. Rove beetles (Staphylinidae) are even more species-rich, living in leaf litter, carrion and ant nests. Carrion beetles (Silphidae) bury small dead animals and prepare them as food for their larvae, competing with flies in a race to decompose.

Pollination by beetles — cantharophily — is ancient. Magnolias, some water lilies and many tropical flowers produce strong scents and bowl-shaped blooms suited to beetle visitors that chew pollen rather than delicately collecting it. Beetle pollination is less economically prominent than bee pollination today but remains ecologically significant in many tropical and temperate plant lineages.

## Beetles as pests and invaders
The same adaptability that makes beetles successful also makes some species destructive. Bark and wood-boring beetles — scolytines and longhorns — attack stressed or dead trees; in outbreak conditions they kill living forest at scale. Mountain pine beetle outbreaks linked to warmer winters have killed vast areas of North American conifer forest. Emerald ash borer, an Asian wood-borer, has eliminated ash as a viable street and forest tree across much of eastern North America since its introduction in the 1990s.

Agricultural pests include the Colorado potato beetle, western corn rootworm and numerous weevils that attack stored grain. Resistance evolution to insecticides is documented repeatedly in these species because generation times are short and population sizes large. Stored-product beetles infest grain silos worldwide, causing post-harvest losses that rival field pests.

Invasive beetles travel in timber, packaging and plants. Biosecurity — heat treatment of pallets, inspection of nursery stock, early detection trapping — is the front line. Once established, few invasive wood-borers are eradicated; management shifts to slowing spread and breeding resistant tree varieties.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/beetle): Beetle — wildlife guide.

## Fireflies, stag beetles and the beetles people notice
Fireflies (Lampyridae) are beetles whose larvae glow as warning signals and whose adults use species-specific flash patterns for courtship. Light pollution disrupts those signals — males cannot find females, females cannot assess males — and habitat loss removes the moist leaf litter where larvae spend one to two years feeding on snails and worms. Firefly declines are reported across Europe, North America and Asia and are one of the more visible faces of insect loss.

Stag beetles (Lucanidae) are among the largest European beetles; males contest with mandibles that are display structures rather than efficient weapons. Dead wood in old parks and orchards is essential larval habitat, and tidying culture that removes every rotting stump contributes to their scarcity in intensively managed landscapes. Rhinoceros beetles and Goliath beetles fill similar cultural niches in the tropics — charismatic megafauna of the insect world.

Conservation for beetles is habitat conservation: dead wood, undisturbed soil, dung on pasture, native plants for specialists, and dark skies for fireflies. The order is too large for single-species thinking at this page level, but the principles repeat — specialists need their substrate left alone, and generalists need fewer broad-spectrum pesticides.

## Beetles in agriculture and forestry economics
The economic story of beetles cuts both ways. Pollinator beetles and dung beetles provide services worth billions when aggregated globally — pasture productivity, soil structure, pest suppression. Conversely, bark beetles, rootworms and grain weevils cost forestry and agriculture comparable sums in lost yield, control chemicals and tree replacement.

Integrated pest management tries to distinguish beneficial from harmful coleopterans rather than spraying indiscriminately. Predatory ground beetles in field margins reduce caterpillar loads; preserving those margins is cheaper than foliar insecticide on every hectare. In forestry, diversifying tree age and species reduces monoculture vulnerability to single bark-beetle species that explode when drought stress weakens uniform stands.

Public policy often lags behind entomological detail — beetle outbreaks trigger emergency spraying that kills non-target species and sets up the next outbreak by removing predators. Order-level literacy about beetles is therefore not academic; it is how land managers avoid expensive ecological mistakes.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education for the invertebrate majority that carries ecosystems yet receives a fraction of public attention. Beetles are the largest slice of that majority — understanding them is understanding how land ecosystems actually work.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/beetle): Beetle — wildlife guide.

## How many beetle species exist?
More than 400,000 described — about a quarter of all known animal species. Estimates of the true total, especially in unsampled tropical forests, run much higher.

## Are beetles insects?
Yes. Beetles belong to the order Coleoptera within the class Insecta. They undergo complete metamorphosis and have six legs as adults, plus the distinctive hardened forewings called elytra.

## Are fireflies beetles?
Yes. Fireflies belong to the family Lampyridae in order Coleoptera. Both larvae and adults are beetles; the bioluminescence is used for warning and courtship.

## What are elytra?
The hardened forewings that cover and protect the membranous hind wings. They are the defining feature of beetles and allow movement through abrasive environments.

## What do beetles eat?
Beetles eat Elytra — Hardened forewings protecting the flight wings beneath. Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most species-rich animal order — more than 400,000 described species with hardened forewings (elytra) and complete metamorphosis — filling roles from pollinator and pest controller to forest pest and decomposer.

## Where do beetles live?
Beetles live in All terrestrial and freshwater; none truly marine. Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most species-rich animal order — more than 400,000 described species with hardened forewings (elytra) and complete metamorphosis — filling roles from pollinator and pest controller to forest pest and decomposer.

## Are beetles dangerous?
Beetles are domesticated animals and are not dangerous to people in the wild-predator sense. Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most species-rich animal order — more than 400,000 described species with hardened forewings (elytra) and complete metamorphosis — filling roles from pollinator and pest controller to forest pest and decomposer. Usual risks are husbandry and handling, not unprovoked attacks.

## How long do beetles live?
A precise wild lifespan for beetles is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most species-rich animal order — more than 400,000 described species with hardened forewings (elytra) and complete metamorphosis — filling roles from pollinator and pest controller to forest pest and decomposer. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a beetle?
Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most species-rich animal order — more than 400,000 described species with hardened forewings (elytra) and complete metamorphosis — filling roles from pollinator and pest controller to forest pest and decomposer.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/mantis): Mantis — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Mantids (family Mantidae) are the largest mantis family — roughly 2,300 ambush-predator species with spined raptorial forelegs — and the group most people mean when they say 'praying mantis'; WARN's praying mantis page covers the full order Mantodea.

## Introduction
Mantidae is the largest family within the order Mantodea — the mantises. When early naturalists wrote of 'mantids', they usually meant this family: elongated bodies, triangular heads on flexible necks, and enlarged spined forelegs folded as if in prayer that snap shut on prey. The family holds roughly half of all described mantis species, from the familiar European mantis of Mediterranean gardens to huge tropical genera such as Hierodula and Sphodromantis.

This page is the Mantidae family overview. WARN's separate praying mantis guide covers the order Mantodea as a whole — stereoscopic vision, strike speed, bat-detecting ears and the full diversity of flower mantises, ground mantises and bark mimics across 29 families. Mantidae is the core of that radiation: the generalist ambush predators people most often photograph, keep as pets and encounter in vegetable plots.

Mantids are sit-and-wait hunters. They do not chase; they hold position with camouflage aligned to grass, bark or leaves and strike when prey enters range. The strike takes tens of milliseconds — faster than human reaction — driven by specialised thoracic muscles. What follows is predation without venom: spines hold the prey while the mantis eats it alive, usually from the head inward.

## Takeaway
Mantidae is the largest mantis family — the 'classic' praying mantis body plan.

## Takeaway
WARN's praying mantis guide covers the full order Mantodea; this page focuses on the Mantidae family specifically.

## Takeaway
Mantids are ambush predators — camouflage and patience, then a strike too fast to follow by eye.

## Takeaway
They are generalists: bees, butterflies, crickets and other mantids are all taken if reachable.

## Takeaway
Females lay eggs in hardened foam cases (oothecae) attached to stems, walls or bark.

## Takeaway
Sexual cannibalism occurs in some species but is far less universal than popular accounts suggest.

## The Mantidae body plan
A typical mantid in Mantidae has an elongated prothorax — the first thoracic segment is unusually long, which increases reach when the forelegs strike. The head is triangular, with large compound eyes and three simple eyes on top, mounted on a flexible neck that allows scanning without body movement. The forelegs are femur-and-tibia traps lined with spines; when folded, they give the prayer posture that supplies the common name.

Wings vary. Many temperate and tropical Mantidae fly well as adults; males are often smaller and more agile fliers than females. Some island and high-altitude species are brachypterous — short-winged or wingless — reflecting reduced need for dispersal in stable habitats. Colour is frequently green or brown, tuned to vegetation, but tropical Mantidae include pink, yellow and banded species that match flowers or bark.

Size spans orders of magnitude within the family. Small mantids of a few centimetres hunt springtails and flies; large Hierodula and Tenodera species take crickets, moths and occasionally small vertebrates. The body plan scales because the hunting method — sit, strike, hold — does not require pursuit speed.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/mantis): Mantis — wildlife guide.

## Ambush ecology in gardens and forests
Mantids choose perches where prey traffic is high: flower heads, unmown grass stems, shrub surfaces facing open light. They orient toward movement using compound eyes; some species slowly rock forward and back, a behaviour that may improve depth perception by motion parallax before a strike.

Prey capture success is high because the strike outruns most escape reflexes. Mantids cannot chew; they use mandibles to bite off pieces of soft tissue from living prey. A mantid on a pollinator-rich flower eats pollinators — which is why releasing mantids for pest control is imprecise. Aphids are taken, but so are bees and butterflies at equal or greater rates.

Population dynamics track prey abundance and temperature. Mantids are ectothermic — activity requires warm conditions — and generation time is one season in temperate climates. Oothecae overwinter where seasons are cold; dozens to hundreds of nymphs emerge in spring and disperse, eating each other if other prey is scarce.

## Reproduction: oothecae and the cannibalism myth
Mating in Mantidae follows a pattern common across insects but sensationalised in mantids. Males approach females cautiously; in some species the female consumes the male before, during or after copulation. Nutritional benefit to egg production is documented in laboratory conditions. Field rates vary enormously by species, population and whether the male can escape — cannibalism is consistently higher in small captive enclosures than in open habitat.

After mating, the female deposits eggs in a frothy secretion moulded around a stem or flat surface. The foam hardens into an ootheca — a protective capsule resisting desiccation and some predators. European mantis oothecae are familiar objects on garden canes; each may hold a hundred or more eggs. Nymphs hatch together and disperse; incomplete metamorphosis means they resemble small adults and grow through successive moults.

Pet trade supply for common Mantidae — Hierodula, Sphodromantis, Tenodera — is largely captive-bred. Welfare requirements are straightforward but non-negotiable: vertical space for moulting, live prey of appropriate size, humidity matched to species origin, and no co-housing except briefly for mating.

## Mantidae versus the wider mantis order
Mantodea contains 29 families, and not all fit the classic Mantidae silhouette. Flower mantises in Hymenopodidae mimic orchids and attract pollinators as prey. Ground mantises in Tarachodidae run on bare soil. Boxer mantises in Hestiasulidae have shortened bodies and powerful strikes. The order-level diversity is why WARN maintains both this Mantidae family page and a separate praying mantis order guide.

Conservation pressure on Mantidae is habitat loss at the local scale — drainage of wet grassland, pesticide-heavy agriculture, fire suppression that changes savanna structure. Few Mantidae species have formal IUCN assessments; those that do tend to be island or single-site endemics. Widespread garden species such as Mantis religiosa are secure in suitable climate zones and have even expanded range with horticultural trade.

For gardeners, a mantid is a sign of insect-rich habitat rather than a precision tool. For naturalists, Mantidae is the accessible entry point to a predatory insect order whose specialisations — 3D vision in the wider order, flower mimicry in allied families, ultrasonic hearing in night-flying groups — reward reading beyond the single family.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/mantis): Mantis — wildlife guide.

## Regional Mantidae you might meet
Mantis religiosa — the European mantis — has spread beyond native Mediterranean range through horticultural trade and climate matching, appearing in North American gardens and temperate Asia. Stagmomantis species occupy similar niches in the Americas. Hierodula and Tenodera are large Asian genera common in the pet trade and, where escaped, in subtropical gardens.

Recognition is straightforward: triangular head, elongated prothorax, raptorial forelegs. Colour varies green to brown within species by environment. Nymphs lack wings but show the same posture. Oothecae on stems and fences persist through winter in temperate climates — a sign the next generation is already queued.

Regional guides matter because not every long insect in a garden is a mantid — stick insects, grasshoppers and leaf-footed bugs are routinely misidentified. Correct ID prevents unnecessary killing of harmless species and directs curiosity toward the animal actually present.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education including family-level guides that sit beneath order overviews. Mantidae is what most people photograph; Mantodea is what ecologists study — both deserve accurate, distinct coverage.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/mantis): Mantis — wildlife guide.

## What is the difference between mantis and praying mantis?
Praying mantis usually refers to any member of the order Mantodea. Mantidae is the largest family within that order — the 'classic' mantids. WARN's praying mantis guide covers the whole order; this page focuses on family Mantidae.

## Do mantids always eat their mates?
No. Sexual cannibalism happens in some Mantidae species and can increase egg production, but frequency varies widely and is much higher in cramped captivity than in the wild.

## What is an ootheca?
A hardened egg case made from frothy secretion. Mantid females attach oothecae to stems, walls or bark; they protect eggs over winter or dry seasons until nymphs hatch together.

## Are mantids good for pest control?
Not selectively. Mantids eat whatever they catch — aphids, bees, butterflies and each other. They indicate a healthy invertebrate community but are poor targeted control agents.

## What do mantis eat?
Mantis eat Generalist — Most mantids eat any invertebrate they can overpower. Mantids (family Mantidae) are the largest mantis family — roughly 2,300 ambush-predator species with spined raptorial forelegs — and the group most people mean when they say 'praying mantis'; WARN's praying mantis page covers the full order Mantodea.

## Where do mantis live?
Mantis live in Tropical and temperate regions worldwide, Most diverse in rainforests; several species widespread in gardens. Mantids (family Mantidae) are the largest mantis family — roughly 2,300 ambush-predator species with spined raptorial forelegs — and the group most people mean when they say 'praying mantis'; WARN's praying mantis page covers the full order Mantodea.

## Are mantis dangerous?
What follows is predation without venom: spines hold the prey while the mantis eats it alive, usually from the head inward. Give wild mantis space; do not corner or handle them.

## How long do mantis live?
A precise wild lifespan for mantis is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Mantids (family Mantidae) are the largest mantis family — roughly 2,300 ambush-predator species with spined raptorial forelegs — and the group most people mean when they say 'praying mantis'; WARN's praying mantis page covers the full order Mantodea. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big are mantis?
A Mantis is about ~2,300 species. Mantids (family Mantidae) are the largest mantis family — roughly 2,300 ambush-predator species with spined raptorial forelegs — and the group most people mean when they say 'praying mantis'; WARN's praying mantis page covers the full order Mantodea. Conservation status: Habitat loss; pesticides for narrow-range species.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/stick-insect): Stick Insect — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Stick insects (order Phasmatodea) are phytophagous insects with more than 3,000 species, most mimicking twigs or leaves; many reproduce parthenogenetically, and island endemics are among the most threatened insects.

## Introduction
Stick insects — phasmids — are among the most convincing mimics in the animal kingdom. Order Phasmatodea contains more than 3,000 described species, many of which resemble twigs, bark, lichen or leaves closely enough to defeat casual searching. Movement is slow and rhythmic, swaying like a branch in wind. Bodies are elongated; legs are long and slender; wings may be present, reduced or absent depending on species and sex. Some tropical giants exceed 30 cm in body length — among the largest insects on Earth.

Phasmids are herbivores, feeding almost exclusively on leaves. Many are nocturnal, feeding under cover of darkness and freezing by day. When discovered, defences escalate: startle displays with bright wing colours, regurgitation of distasteful fluid, loud stridulation, spiny leg kicks, and in some species autotomy — deliberate leg loss at a weak joint, followed by regeneration over successive moults.

Parthenogenesis — females producing viable eggs without mating — is widespread in phasmids and allows single individuals to found populations. That trait, combined with popularity in the pet trade, has led to accidental introductions outside native ranges. Stick insects are not charismatic in the mammal sense, but they are evolutionary demonstrations of crypsis, and island endemics among them rank among the most threatened insects alive.

Temperate phasmids in Britain and Europe include native and naturalised species surviving in hedgerows and gardens, proving the body plan works even where tropical diversity is absent.

Museums and schools use phasmids to teach exoskeleton growth because every moult is visible — a shed skin left on a branch is a complete cast of the animal one size smaller. That pedagogical role keeps demand in ethical captive breeding programmes that need not touch wild populations.

## Takeaway
Stick insects are plant-feeding insects specialised for camouflage as twigs, bark or leaves.

## Takeaway
Many species can reproduce parthenogenetically — a single female can start a population.

## Takeaway
Autotomy (leg shedding) and regeneration are common defences; regrown legs are shorter.

## Takeaway
The pet trade has spread some species outside native ranges via eggs on plants.

## Takeaway
Lord Howe Island stick insect — once thought extinct — is a flagship recovery species.

## Takeaway
Island phasmids face rats, habitat loss and invasive plants; many are Critically Endangered.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/stick-insect): Stick Insect — wildlife guide.

## Crypsis: becoming vegetation
Phasmid camouflage operates on multiple levels. Shape matches host plants — thin rectangular bodies and aligned legs extend the twig illusion. Colour includes greens, browns and bark greys, often with lichen-like tubercles. Movement is deliberately slow; a swaying motion mimics vegetation moving in breeze. Some species extend the performance by holding legs at angles that continue the line of a branch.

Leaf insects (Phylliidae) push mimicry further: flattened bodies, leaf-like expansion of the legs and abdomen, and in some species deliberate damage marks — false holes and fungal spots — painted in pigment. The effect is so complete that even experienced collectors miss them in foliage. Cryptic colouration fails when phasmids fall onto contrasting substrate — a brown twig-insect on pale pavement is suddenly obvious, which is why nocturnal feeding reduces exposure.

Startle defences exist for when crypsis fails. Hidden hind wings may flash red, pink or black-and-white patterns. Some species expose eyespots on wings or abdomen. The goal is the same as in moths and frogs: buy a moment of predator hesitation for escape.

## Life history: moulting, regeneration and reproduction
Phasmids grow by moulting — shedding the exoskeleton at intervals. Freshly moulted insects are soft and vulnerable until the new cuticle hardens; many species eat the shed skin to recover nutrients. Incomplete metamorphosis means nymphs resemble small adults without wings.

Autotomy is controlled leg loss at a pre-formed weak point. A grabbed leg detaches while muscles seal the wound. Subsequent moults regenerate the leg, though replacements are often shorter and cannot autotomise again at the same segment. The trade-off favours survival over immediate mobility.

Sexual reproduction is usual in many species, but parthenogenesis — development from unfertilised eggs — is common, especially in captivity and in isolated populations. Clutches vary from dozens to hundreds of eggs, often dropped to leaf litter or inserted into soil. Egg capsules may mimic seeds, gaining further protection through camouflage. Incubation can take months; nymphs emerge as miniature versions of adults.

## Island phasmids and the extinction curve
Phasmids illustrate the island vulnerability pattern sharply. Lord Howe Island stick insect (Dryococelus australis) — the 'tree lobster' — was driven to apparent extinction by black rats introduced from shipwrecks in the early twentieth century. A tiny population survived on a volcanic sea stack, Ball's Pyramid, discovered decades later. Captive breeding programmes recovered the species from that remnant, though reintroduction to Lord Howe awaits rat eradication.

New Zealand and Hawaii hold multiple endangered phasmids lost to rats, mice and habitat conversion. Because phasmids are flightless or weak-flying on many islands, invasion by climbing predators is catastrophic. Recovery follows the familiar island playbook: predator eradication, fenced sanctuaries, captive breeding and careful reintroduction.

Mainland phasmids are generally more secure, though local extirpations occur where hedgerow and woodland habitat is simplified. Saproxylic and shrub-layer specialists lose host plants when management removes structural diversity.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/stick-insect): Stick Insect — wildlife guide.

## Phasmids in captivity and accidental spread
Stick insects are common classroom and pet-trade animals because husbandry is straightforward: ventilated enclosure, fresh host-plant leaves replaced regularly, vertical space for moulting, and humidity suited to species origin. Parthenogenetic species simplify breeding — one female can populate a tank.

That same biology creates biosecurity risk. Eggs laid in soil or glued to leaves travel with imported plants. Several phasmid species have established outside native ranges in temperate greenhouses and mild coastal climates. Release of unwanted pets contributes. Responsible keeping means freezing waste plant material and eggs before disposal, and never releasing captives outdoors.

Education value is high. Phasmids demonstrate camouflage, moult-based growth, regeneration and parthenogenesis in a single animal that most children can observe calmly. Conservation value concentrates on the island species at the far end of the vulnerability spectrum — the tree lobster story is proof that even insects presumed extinct can recover if the last individuals are found in time.

## Giant phasmids and public imagination
Tropical giants — Phobaeticus and related genera — hold records for insect body length when legs are extended. They are not dangerous; they are slow herbivores whose main defence is disappearing against a branch. Zoo and museum displays of giant stick insects routinely convert phasmid sceptics because the scale is unexpected.

Research uses phasmids as models for understanding camouflage effectiveness against avian predators — experiments with trained birds and artificial prey show how even slight mismatch to background increases predation. That work feeds broader questions about how habitat simplification — uniform crops, trimmed hedges — removes the visual complexity phasmids need.

Mainland giants are data-poor compared with island endemics. Logging in Southeast Asian rainforest removes host trees and collection pressure for the pet trade adds local drain. Least Concern labels on widespread species should not obscure site-level loss in forests converted to plantation monoculture.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education for overlooked invertebrates, including the island endemics whose extinction would pass unnoticed without deliberate attention. Stick insects are proof that charisma is not required for a conservation story worth telling.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/stick-insect): Stick Insect — wildlife guide.

## What is a stick insect?
An insect in the order Phasmatodea, typically elongated and camouflaged as a twig or leaf. More than 3,000 species are described. They are herbivorous and mostly nocturnal.

## Can stick insects regrow legs?
Yes. Many species autotomise — shed — a leg when grabbed, and regenerate it over subsequent moults. Regrown legs are often shorter than originals.

## Do stick insects need males to reproduce?
Not always. Parthenogenesis is common — females produce viable eggs without mating. This is frequent in captivity and in isolated wild populations.

## Are stick insects endangered?
Most species are unassessed. Island endemics — including the Lord Howe Island stick insect — are among the most threatened insects. Mainland species are often more secure.

## What do stick insects eat?
Leaves of specific host plants. Many species accept only certain plant genera; captive care requires knowing the correct food plant.

## Where do stick insect / phasmids live?
Stick Insect / Phasmids live in Tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, Most diverse in Australasia and Southeast Asia; some temperate species. Stick insects (order Phasmatodea) are phytophagous insects with more than 3,000 species, most mimicking twigs or leaves; many reproduce parthenogenetically, and island endemics are among the most threatened insects.

## Are stick insect / phasmids dangerous?
Stick Insect / Phasmids are domesticated animals and are not dangerous to people in the wild-predator sense. Stick insects (order Phasmatodea) are phytophagous insects with more than 3,000 species, most mimicking twigs or leaves; many reproduce parthenogenetically, and island endemics are among the most threatened insects. Usual risks are husbandry and handling, not unprovoked attacks.

## How long do stick insect / phasmids live?
Stick Insect / Phasmids typically live Twig, bark or leaf mimicry. Stick insects (order Phasmatodea) are phytophagous insects with more than 3,000 species, most mimicking twigs or leaves; many reproduce parthenogenetically, and island endemics are among the most threatened insects. Wild and captive figures can differ; use the sources listed on the guide for the underlying studies.

## How big is a stick insect / phasmid?
A Stick Insect / Phasmid is about 30+ cm (Body length in largest tropical species). Stick insects (order Phasmatodea) are phytophagous insects with more than 3,000 species, most mimicking twigs or leaves; many reproduce parthenogenetically, and island endemics are among the most threatened insects. Conservation status: Invasive predators on islands; habitat loss.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/krill): Krill — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Krill (order Euphausiacea) are small crustaceans whose Antarctic species Euphausia superba underpins the Southern Ocean food web; the species is Least Concern but faces fishing pressure and climate-driven sea-ice loss.

## Introduction
Krill are small, shrimp-like crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea. They are not true shrimp — different anatomy, different order — but occupy a similar ecological tier as filter-feeding mesozooplankton that convert microscopic phytoplankton into flesh large predators can use. In the Southern Ocean, Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) forms swarms so dense they discolour the sea and are visible from space. The standing biomass is among the largest of any wild animal population on Earth.

That biomass underpins the Southern Ocean food web. Baleen whales, penguins, seals, squid, fish and seabirds depend directly or indirectly on krill. Blue whales can consume tonnes of krill daily during feeding season. Adélie and chinstrap penguin breeding success tracks krill availability near colonies. Remove krill and the ecosystem does not rearrange gracefully — it collapses upward through the food chain.

Commercial krill fishing operates in the same waters. Fleets harvest krill for aquaculture feed, omega-3 supplements and pet food. Catch is regulated by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, but fishing overlaps spatially with predator foraging grounds, and climate change is altering sea ice — a critical nursery habitat for larval krill — faster than management frameworks adjust.

Other oceans hold krill species too — North Pacific euphausiids support salmon, seabirds and whales — but none match the biomass concentration or political visibility of Antarctic E. superba. What happens in the Southern Ocean is watched as a template for ecosystem-based fisheries management worldwide.

Satellite sensors can detect large krill swarms indirectly through chlorophyll and sea-surface patterns, linking ocean colour to prey availability for fisheries managers. The science is young but improving yearly as acoustic and remote tools merge.

## Takeaway
Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is among the most abundant wild animal biomass on Earth.

## Takeaway
Krill convert phytoplankton into food for whales, penguins, seals, fish and seabirds.

## Takeaway
Larval krill depend on sea ice and ice-algae — both declining with climate warming.

## Takeaway
Commercial krill fishing is regulated but overlaps with predator foraging areas.

## Takeaway
Krill fishing supplies aquaculture feed and omega-3 products globally.

## Takeaway
Ecosystem-based management — leaving enough krill for predators — is the conservation test.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/krill): Krill — wildlife guide.

## Southern Ocean food web: krill at the centre
Antarctic krill feed on phytoplankton and ice-algae, packing energy into lipid-rich bodies that sustain cold-water predators through lean seasons. Swarms can extend for kilometres and move vertically in the water column — deep by day, surface by night — following food and avoiding visual predators.

Baleen whales are the iconic krill consumers. Humpback, minke, fin and blue whales feed heavily on krill in Antarctic waters during austral summer, building fat reserves for migration and breeding. Fish such as Antarctic silverfish and icefish depend on krill; so do squid taken by albatrosses and seals. The food web is short and efficient: algae to krill to vertebrate predator, with little redundancy if krill abundance falls.

Land-based predators connect through the coast. Penguin colonies require krill within commuting distance during chick-rearing. When krill is scarce — whether from oceanographic shift, sea-ice loss or local depletion — chick survival drops and colonies decline. The krill link is measurable in breeding statistics, not speculation.

## Sea ice as nursery
Krill life history ties to sea ice. Larvae feed on algae growing on the underside of ice — a food source available when open-water phytoplankton blooms are absent. Ice also provides shelter from predators. Winter sea-ice extent around Antarctica has shown long-term decline in many sectors; the ice season shortens and the algae association weakens.

Adult krill can live several years and store lipids, buffering short bad seasons. Larval stages are more vulnerable — a failed ice-algae season reduces recruitment for years afterward because cohorts are missing. Climate models project continued ice loss; krill distribution may shift southward or contract to refugia where ice persists.

Ocean acidification adds pressure. Krill exoskeleton formation and larval development may be affected as carbonate chemistry changes, though field evidence is still accumulating compared with the clearer ice-habitat signal.

## The krill fishery
Commercial harvesting of Antarctic krill began at scale in the 1970s and is concentrated in the Southwest Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean — the same area supporting major penguin and seal colonies. Products include krill meal for aquaculture, krill oil for human supplements and pet food ingredients.

CCAMLR sets catch limits based on estimated biomass and applies a precautionary approach relative to total stock. Current catches are a fraction of the regulated limit, but spatial concentration matters: fishing in small areas near colonies can locally deplete swarms predators rely on during breeding. Ecosystem-based fisheries management — accounting for predator needs, not just sustainable yield to the fleet — is the stated goal but hard to enforce in practice.

Bycatch and processing waste are lesser concerns than allocation. The political question is whether growing demand for aquaculture feed will push catches toward limits as ice habitat contracts simultaneously — a squeeze from above and below on the same population.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/krill): Krill — wildlife guide.

## Managing a keystone stock
Krill conservation is fisheries management plus climate policy. No marine protected area network in the Southern Ocean is complete without considering krill distribution and predator foraging ranges. Proposals for large MPAs in the Weddell Sea and East Antarctica have stalled repeatedly in CCAMLR politics, leaving the regulatory picture fragmented.

Monitoring uses acoustic surveys estimating swarm biomass, krill-dependent predator breeding success at index colonies, and satellite observation of sea-ice trends. Integrated models linking ice, krill recruitment and penguin survival are the tool for setting spatial fishing restrictions — closed zones near colonies during chick-rearing, for example.

For consumers, krill oil supplements connect everyday purchases to Antarctic ecology. Supply-chain scrutiny — certification, catch location, company reporting — is one lever. The larger lever is climate mitigation: without sea ice, krill recruitment suffers regardless of fishing restraint. Antarctic krill is Least Concern on the IUCN list today; the Southern Ocean ecosystem it supports is not guaranteed that stability tomorrow.

## Whales, penguins and the krill link
Humpback whales recovering in the Southwest Atlantic after whaling moratoria now compete for krill with industrial trawlers and with penguins breeding on the same peninsula coastlines. Adélie penguin declines in some areas correlate with krill scarcity near colonies during chick-rearing — a direct food-chain signal, not a abstract food-web diagram.

Fur seals and leopard seals consume krill directly or via fish that eat krill. The short food chain means krill abundance ripples quickly. A year of poor recruitment from ice failure affects predators two trophic levels up within the same breeding season.

Whale-watching tourism and krill fishing both claim sustainable use of the same stock. Resolution requires spatial zoning — fishing away from choke-point foraging grounds during predator breeding — rather than assuming a global catch limit alone protects ecosystem function.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free, sourced species education for keystone species whose decline would cascade through ecosystems most people never see. Krill is the Southern Ocean in miniature — algae, ice, whales and fisheries all meeting in a two-centimetre crustacean.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/krill): Krill — wildlife guide.

## What is krill?
Small, shrimp-like crustaceans in the order Euphausiacea. Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is the dominant species in Southern Ocean swarms and underpins the regional food web.

## Are krill endangered?
Antarctic krill is listed Least Concern. That reflects large estimated biomass today, not absence of risk. Fishing pressure, sea-ice loss and climate change are active concerns.

## What eats krill?
Baleen whales, penguins, seals, squid, fish and seabirds. Many Southern Ocean predators depend on krill directly or eat krill-eating fish.

## Why is sea ice important for krill?
Larval krill feed on algae growing on the underside of sea ice and use ice for shelter. Declining ice reduces food and nursery habitat for new generations.

## What do krills eat?
Krills eat CCAMLR — International body regulating Antarctic krill fishery. Krill (order Euphausiacea) are small crustaceans whose Antarctic species Euphausia superba underpins the Southern Ocean food web; the species is Least Concern but faces fishing pressure and climate-driven sea-ice loss.

## Where do krills live?
Krills live in Southern Ocean around Antarctica, Krill orders also occur in all other oceans. Krill (order Euphausiacea) are small crustaceans whose Antarctic species Euphausia superba underpins the Southern Ocean food web; the species is Least Concern but faces fishing pressure and climate-driven sea-ice loss.

## Are krills dangerous?
Krills are not generally dangerous to people. Krill (order Euphausiacea) are small crustaceans whose Antarctic species Euphausia superba underpins the Southern Ocean food web; the species is Least Concern but faces fishing pressure and climate-driven sea-ice loss. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do krills live?
A precise wild lifespan for krills is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Krill (order Euphausiacea) are small crustaceans whose Antarctic species Euphausia superba underpins the Southern Ocean food web; the species is Least Concern but faces fishing pressure and climate-driven sea-ice loss. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a krill?
A Krill is about Swarms (Can contain millions of individuals per cubic metre). Krill (order Euphausiacea) are small crustaceans whose Antarctic species Euphausia superba underpins the Southern Ocean food web; the species is Least Concern but faces fishing pressure and climate-driven sea-ice loss. Conservation status: Least Concern (E. superba).


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/viper): Viper — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Vipers (family Viperidae) are roughly 350 species of venomous snake with hinged solenoglyph fangs and ambush hunting — including adders, rattlesnakes and fer-de-lance — responsible for a major share of global snakebite envenomation.

## Introduction
Vipers are venomous snakes of the family Viperidae, divided broadly into true vipers (Viperinae) of Africa, Europe and Asia, and pit vipers (Crotalinae) of the Americas and Asia. Roughly 350 species share a toolkit: long hinged fangs that fold against the palate when the mouth is closed, potent venom delivered by a strike and often a withdrawal rather than pursuit, and a generally stout body built for ambush rather than speed. Pupils are vertical in most species — a slit that contracts in bright light.

Medically, vipers cause a large share of serious snakebite globally. Russell's viper in South Asia, saw-scaled vipers in dry Africa and Asia, fer-de-lance in Central and South America, and timber rattlesnakes in North America all kill or maim where antivenom access is poor and hospitals distant. Venom composition varies: haemotoxins damaging tissue and blood clotting in many true vipers; mixed haemo- and neurotoxic effects in some pit vipers.

Ecologically, vipers are rodent controllers. An adder on a heath or a bushmaster in leaf litter consumes small mammals that would otherwise multiply. Fear drives persecution — vipers killed on sight regardless of risk — which removes beneficial predators without reducing bite incidence where human-viper overlap is structural. Understanding vipers as family, not as a single monster, is the basis for coexistence and for targeting antivenom production to the species that matter locally.

## Takeaway
Viperidae includes true vipers and pit vipers — adders, rattlesnakes, lanceheads and many others.

## Takeaway
Long hinged fangs deliver venom in a fast strike; most vipers do not chase prey or people.

## Takeaway
Pit vipers have heat-sensing pits for detecting warm-blooded prey at night.

## Takeaway
Vipers are major contributors to global snakebite burden where antivenom access is limited.

## Takeaway
Many vipers give birth to live young rather than laying eggs — ovoviviparity is common.

## Takeaway
Persecution and habitat loss threaten vipers; they also control rodent populations.

## Fangs, venom and the strike
Viper fangs are solenoglyph — hollow and mounted on a movable maxillary bone that rotates forward when the mouth opens. At rest, fangs fold against the palate. In a strike, the rotation is rapid and the injection deliberate. Venom glands sit behind the eyes; muscles compress them during the bite. Some vipers 'dry bite' — strike without envenoming — especially in defensive contexts, though treating any bite as envenomed is prudent.

Venom is tuned to prey. Rodent-killing vipers use haemotoxins that disrupt clotting, destroy tissue and drop blood pressure — effective on small mammals, devastating on human tissue if untreated. Some species add neurotoxic components. Prey is usually released after the bite and tracked by scent once immobilised; the viper follows rather than constricting.

Defensive bites differ from predatory ones. A viper on a path wants escape, not conflict. Many bites occur when snakes are stepped on, handled or attacked. Footwear, light at night, and not reaching into unseen crevices address most risk without needing to kill every viper encountered.