World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/dove): Dove — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is a Vulnerable migratory columbid of European woodland and farmland, declining by roughly 80% since 1970 due to habitat loss, hunting and agricultural intensification.

## Introduction
Doves are gentle, ground-feeding pigeons of the family Columbidae, symbolising peace across cultures. The European turtle dove — named for its purring 'turr-turr' call — breeds in woodland and farmland from Britain to Central Asia, migrating to sub-Saharan Africa each winter. Once common across Europe, turtle dove populations have collapsed by roughly 80% since 1970. Listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, the species faces habitat loss, hunting along migration routes and food shortages from agricultural intensification. Other doves, including the collared dove and stock dove, remain widespread, but the turtle dove's decline is one of Europe's most urgent farmland bird crises.

## Takeaway
The European turtle dove is Vulnerable with an 80% decline in Europe since 1970.

## Takeaway
Turtle doves migrate to sub-Saharan Africa each winter — up to 5,000 km.

## Takeaway
Agricultural intensification removed weed seeds and fallow land they depend on.

## Takeaway
Spring hunting in Mediterranean countries kills hundreds of thousands annually.

## Takeaway
The collared dove expanded across Europe from the 1950s; turtle doves declined.

## Takeaway
Operation Turtle Dove in the UK coordinates habitat restoration and hunting reform.

## Doves of the columbid family
Columbidae includes roughly 350 species worldwide — from the massive crowned pigeons of New Guinea to the tiny ground doves of the tropics. European turtle doves are smaller and slimmer than feral pigeons, with warm brown plumage, black-and-white neck patches and a soft purring song that once filled English summers.

Collared doves — a separate species that expanded explosively across Europe from the 1950s — are now far commoner in gardens. Stock doves nest in tree holes; woodpigeons dominate farmland. The turtle dove occupies a niche between these, feeding on weed seeds in open woodland and hedgerow margins.

Doves share columbid traits: monogamous pair bonds, crop milk for squabs and a gentle temperament that made them cultural symbols of peace from ancient Rome to the modern United Nations.

## Migration across two continents
Turtle doves are long-distance migrants. Birds breeding in Britain and Scandinavia cross the Mediterranean and Sahara to winter in the Sahel — Senegal, Mali and Burkina Faso. GPS tracking reveals journeys exceeding 5,000 km, with stopovers in Iberia and North Africa to refuel.

Migration is perilous. Habitat loss in West African wintering grounds reduces food availability. Desert crossing demands fat reserves built during pre-migration feeding. Birds arriving thin in spring produce fewer young.

The flyway connects European farmland policy with African land use — conservation must address both ends of the journey. Single-country protection cannot save a species that spends half the year on another continent.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/dove): Dove — wildlife guide.

## Why turtle doves are disappearing
Three drivers explain the turtle dove collapse. Agricultural intensification removed weed seeds — fumitory, chickweed, clover — that formed the bulk of their diet. Herbicide use and autumn sowing of winter cereals eliminated stubbles and fallow fields where doves fed. Nest failure rose as hedgerows were removed and woodland understorey cleared.

Spring hunting in France, Spain and Italy kills an estimated 2–4 million turtle doves annually during northward migration — a legal harvest that conservationists argue is unsustainable for a Vulnerable species. Illegal trapping adds further mortality.

Disease — including trichomonosis, which also affects greenfinches — may contribute locally. The combined pressure has reduced the British population to fewer than 2,000 pairs from an estimated 125,000 in 1970.

## Conservation action
The IUCN lists the European turtle dove as Vulnerable with a continuing decline across its breeding range. Operation Turtle Dove — a partnership of the RSPB, Pensthorpe Conservation Trust and Natural England — creates nesting and feeding habitat on farms, promotes seed-rich margins and advocates for sustainable hunting limits.

The European Commission has restricted turtle dove hunting seasons in several member states, though enforcement varies. African wintering-ground projects restore Sahelian woodland and reduce trapping.

CITES Appendix II regulates international trade. Readers can support turtle doves by choosing food produced with wildlife-friendly farming, supporting organisations restoring hedgerows and advocating for sustainable flyway management.

## Doves in culture and beyond
Doves appear in religious texts, political imagery and poetry as emblems of peace and fidelity. The turtle dove's melancholy song features in the Bible, Shakespeare and Stevie Nicks lyrics — a cultural presence that outlasts its fading call in modern farmland.

Other dove species face distinct pressures. The Socorro dove of Mexico is Extinct in the Wild; the Grenada dove is Critically Endangered. The turtle dove's story is a warning that even familiar, beloved birds can vanish within a human lifetime.

WARN publishes this dove guide as free public education. Farmland bird decline is a measure of ecosystem health — saving turtle doves means saving the seed-rich, hedgerow landscapes they represent.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this dove guide as free public education. Migratory farmland birds like the turtle dove connect European agriculture with African habitat — a flyway conservation challenge that spans continents.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/dove): Dove — wildlife guide.

## Are turtle doves endangered?
European turtle doves are Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, with an estimated 80% population decline in Europe since 1970. They are not yet Endangered but the trend is deeply concerning.

## What is the difference between a dove and a pigeon?
Doves and pigeons belong to the same family, Columbidae. 'Dove' usually refers to smaller species; 'pigeon' to larger ones — but the distinction is cultural, not scientific.

## Why are turtle doves declining?
Habitat loss from agricultural intensification, loss of weed seeds and fallow land, spring hunting in Mediterranean countries and degradation of African wintering grounds.

## Do turtle doves migrate?
Yes. European turtle doves migrate to sub-Saharan Africa each winter, travelling up to 5,000 km across the Mediterranean and Sahara.

## What do turtle doves eat?
Weed seeds — fumitory, chickweed, clover and cereal grain — foraged on the ground in open woodland, hedgerows and farmland margins.

## Where do doves live?
Doves live in Europe, western Asia, North Africa — winters in sub-Saharan Africa. The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is a Vulnerable migratory columbid of European woodland and farmland, declining by roughly 80% since 1970 due to habitat loss, hunting and agricultural intensification.

## Are doves dangerous?
Doves are not generally dangerous to people. The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is a Vulnerable migratory columbid of European woodland and farmland, declining by roughly 80% since 1970 due to habitat loss, hunting and agricultural intensification. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do doves live?
A precise wild lifespan for doves is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is a Vulnerable migratory columbid of European woodland and farmland, declining by roughly 80% since 1970 due to habitat loss, hunting and agricultural intensification. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a dove?
A Dove is about 26–28 cm. The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is a Vulnerable migratory columbid of European woodland and farmland, declining by roughly 80% since 1970 due to habitat loss, hunting and agricultural intensification.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/sparrow): Sparrow — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a Least Concern passerine found on every continent except Antarctica; globally abundant but declined by over 70% in urban Britain since the 1970s.

## Introduction
The house sparrow is one of the world's most familiar birds — a small, chirping companion of farms, gardens and city streets. Males have a grey crown, chestnut nape and black bib; females are streaky brown. Native to Europe, Asia and North Africa, house sparrows were introduced to the Americas, Australasia and elsewhere and now occur on every continent except Antarctica. Listed as Least Concern globally, the species remains abundant worldwide, yet British and urban European populations have collapsed by over 70% since the 1970s — one of the steepest declines of any common bird. Causes include reduced insect food for chicks, pollution, habitat change and competition in modified landscapes.

## Takeaway
House sparrows are globally Least Concern but declined over 70% in urban Britain.

## Takeaway
Chicks depend on insect food — reduced invertebrate abundance may drive decline.

## Takeaway
House sparrows nest in cavities — under eaves, in nest boxes and street signs.

## Takeaway
They are highly social, roosting and feeding in chattering flocks.

## Takeaway
Air pollution — especially nitrogen dioxide — correlates with sparrow decline in cities.

## Takeaway
Providing insect-rich gardens and nest boxes supports urban sparrow recovery.

## A commensal of human settlement
House sparrows evolved alongside human agriculture in the Middle East and spread with farming across Eurasia. They thrive where grain is stored, livestock provide spilled feed and buildings offer nesting cavities. Introduction to North America in the 1850s, Australasia and other regions created vast new populations.

Sparrows are granivorous as adults but feed chicks almost exclusively on insects — aphids, caterpillars and spiders gathered within roughly 50 metres of the nest. This dual diet ties their breeding success to both seed availability and invertebrate abundance.

Social structure is gregarious. Flocks chatter in hedgerows; dust-bathing and squabbling at feeders are familiar behaviours. Males establish territories around nest sites, displaying their black bib — larger bibs signal dominance.

## The mystery of urban decline
The house sparrow paradox defines modern conservation: globally abundant yet locally vanishing. London lost roughly 70% of its sparrows between 1994 and 2004. Similar declines hit Paris, Hamburg, Prague and Delhi. Rural populations in some regions remain stable.

Hypotheses include reduced insect prey for chicks — linked to pesticide use, habitat simplification and the loss of urban green space. Air pollution, particularly nitrogen dioxide, correlates with lower sparrow densities in European cities. Lead and other contaminants may reduce fertility.

Nest-site loss from building renovation — sealed eaves, removed roof spaces — removes breeding sites. Competition with feral pigeons and changed garden practices (fewer insects, more tidy lawns) may compound the problem. No single cause explains all declines.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/sparrow): Sparrow — wildlife guide.

## Ecology and breeding
House sparrows breed from March to August in temperate regions, raising two to four broods. Nests are messy balls of grass and feathers in cavities — under roof tiles, in nest boxes, street signs and tree holes. Clutches contain three to five eggs; incubation lasts about 12 days.

Both parents feed chicks, making up to 400 insect trips per day during peak demand. Fledglings leave the nest at roughly 15 days but remain dependent for a further week.

Sparrows are sedentary in mild climates; northern populations move short distances in harsh weather. Lifespan is typically three to five years, though the oldest recorded wild bird exceeded 13 years.

## Conservation and recovery
The IUCN lists the house sparrow as Least Concern globally with an estimated 540 million mature individuals. Red List status masks regional crises: the species is on the UK Red List of Birds of Conservation Concern. Similar concern applies in the Netherlands, Czech Republic and parts of India.

Recovery efforts focus on insect-rich gardens, native planting, nest boxes with 32 mm entrance holes and community monitoring through citizen science. The RSPB and local wildlife trusts run urban sparrow projects from London to Glasgow.

Research continues into pollution, disease and food supply. House sparrows serve as accessible indicators of urban ecosystem health — their return signals that a neighbourhood supports insects, clean air and nesting opportunity.

## Sparrows in daily life
House sparrows appear in literature from Chaucer to Chekhov — background chirping of ordinary life. Their decline has silenced gardens that once rang with communal chatter, prompting public concern disproportionate to their global status.

Other sparrow species face distinct fates. The Eurasian tree sparrow occupies more rural niches. The Spanish sparrow and dead sea sparrow are range-restricted. The house sparrow's story teaches that Least Concern does not mean safe everywhere.

Readers can help by planting insect-friendly native species, installing nest boxes, avoiding pesticides and supporting urban green-space protection. WARN publishes this sparrow guide as free public education about a bird whose absence is felt even when its global numbers remain vast.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this sparrow guide as free public education. Urban bird decline signals wider ecosystem stress — insect loss, pollution and habitat fragmentation affect wildlife and people alike.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/sparrow): Sparrow — wildlife guide.

## Why are sparrows disappearing in the UK?
Multiple factors: reduced insect food for chicks, air pollution, loss of nesting cavities from building renovation and simplified urban green space. No single cause is confirmed.

## Are house sparrows endangered?
Globally they are Least Concern with roughly 540 million individuals. In Britain they are on the Red List after a 70%+ urban decline since the 1970s.

## What do house sparrows eat?
Adults eat seeds and grain; chicks are fed insects almost exclusively — aphids, caterpillars and spiders gathered near the nest.

## How can I help house sparrows?
Plant insect-friendly native species, install nest boxes with 32 mm holes, avoid pesticides and leave areas of garden untidy for invertebrates.

## Do sparrows migrate?
Most house sparrows are sedentary. Northern populations may move short distances in harsh weather but do not undertake long migrations.

## Where do house sparrows live?
House Sparrows live in Worldwide — native to Europe, Asia and North Africa; introduced to Americas, Australasia and elsewhere. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a Least Concern passerine found on every continent except Antarctica; globally abundant but declined by over 70% in urban Britain since the 1970s.

## Are house sparrows dangerous?
House Sparrows are domesticated animals and are not dangerous to people in the wild-predator sense. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a Least Concern passerine found on every continent except Antarctica; globally abundant but declined by over 70% in urban Britain since the 1970s. Usual risks are husbandry and handling, not unprovoked attacks.

## How long do house sparrows live?
A precise wild lifespan for house sparrows is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a Least Concern passerine found on every continent except Antarctica; globally abundant but declined by over 70% in urban Britain since the 1970s. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a house sparrow?
A House Sparrow is about 14–16 cm. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a Least Concern passerine found on every continent except Antarctica; globally abundant but declined by over 70% in urban Britain since the 1970s.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/raven): Raven — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The common raven (Corvus corax) is a Least Concern corvid of the Northern Hemisphere — the largest passerine, renowned for intelligence, tool use and deep cultural significance.

## Introduction
The common raven is the largest member of the crow family and the heaviest passerine bird on Earth. Glossy black plumage, a thick bill, shaggy throat feathers and a deep croaking call define this iconic corvid. Ravens inhabit the Northern Hemisphere — from Arctic tundra to North African mountains, Pacific coast to Himalayan passes. Listed as Least Concern, they are expanding in many regions after centuries of persecution. Ravens are among the most intelligent birds: they solve puzzles, plan for the future, recognise human faces and engage in playful aerial acrobatics. They appear in mythology from Norse Odin to Pacific Northwest First Nations tradition.

## Takeaway
Ravens are the largest passerines — heavier than many raptors.

## Takeaway
They demonstrate advanced cognition: tool use, planning and face recognition.

## Takeaway
Ravens form long-term pair bonds and hold territories year-round.

## Takeaway
Persecution as pests caused historic declines; populations are now recovering.

## Takeaway
They appear in mythology worldwide — Odin's messengers, creators, tricksters.

## Takeaway
Ravens eat carrion, small animals, eggs, grain and human refuse — true generalists.

## The corvid giant
Corvus corax dwarfs other crows — wingspan reaches 1.3 metres and weight exceeds 1.2 kg in large males. Wedge-shaped tail, thick neck and shaggy throat hackles distinguish ravens from carrion crows at distance. Flight is heavy and acrobatic; pairs perform tumbling display flights during courtship.

Eleven subspecies range across the Northern Hemisphere. Holarctic birds are largest; desert and island forms are smaller. Ravens occupy the widest elevational range of any corvid — from sea level to 5,000 metres in the Himalayas.

Vocal repertoire is rich: deep croaks, knocks, bell-like tones and mimicry of other species. Each pair maintains a territory defended year-round, with nests on cliffs, trees or structures reused across decades.

## Intelligence and social life
Ravens rank among the most intelligent non-human animals. Experiments show they solve multi-step puzzles, use tools, plan for future food needs and understand displacement — knowing where food is hidden relative to landmarks they cannot see.

They recognise individual human faces and transmit information about dangerous people to flockmates. Play is elaborate: sliding down snow slopes, aerial games with sticks and taunting wolves to expose carcasses.

Social structure blends pair loyalty with complex alliances. Non-breeding juveniles form gangs that roost communally and explore territories. Adults share food within pairs — a bond that can last decades.

## Ecology and diet
Ravens are supreme generalists. Carrion forms a staple — they follow wolves, eagles and human hunters to carcasses. They take eggs, nestlings, small mammals, insects, grain and fruit. Coastal birds scavenge beaches and fish offal.

As ecosystem cleaners, ravens recycle nutrients and control pest populations. Their habit of raiding nests creates conflict with ground-nesting birds — including threatened seabirds on some islands — where introduced or overabundant ravens can become conservation problems.

Breeding begins early in the year. Clutches contain three to seven eggs in large stick nests lined with wool and fur. Both parents feed chicks; fledglings depend for several months as they learn foraging skills.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/raven): Raven — wildlife guide.

## Persecution and recovery
Ravens suffered centuries of persecution as livestock pests and symbols of ill omen. Gamekeepers poisoned and shot them; bounties operated in Britain until the twentieth century. Populations crashed across Europe and eastern North America.

Legal protection and reduced persecution allowed recovery. Ravens recolonised eastern North America from the 1960s and spread across southern Britain from strongholds in Wales and Scotland. The IUCN lists them as Least Concern with roughly 16 million mature individuals and an increasing trend in many regions.

Local conflicts persist where ravens predate threatened ground-nesters. Management on seabird islands requires case-by-case balance. CITES Appendix II regulates international trade.

## Ravens in myth and modern culture
Ravens permeate human culture. Norse god Odin kept two ravens — Huginn and Muninn — that flew across the world gathering knowledge. Pacific Northwest peoples honour Raven as creator and trickster. Edgar Allan Poe immortalised the bird in Gothic verse.

Today, ravens attract ecotourists to Yellowstone, the Scottish Highlands and the Tower of London — where captive ravens remain a ceremonial tradition. Research into corvid cognition continues to reveal capacities once thought uniquely human.

WARN publishes this raven guide as free public education about a species whose intelligence and cultural depth reward careful observation in wild places.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this raven guide as free public education. Corvids like the raven remind us that intelligence and adaptability flourish across the animal kingdom — not only in primates.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/raven): Raven — wildlife guide.

## How intelligent are ravens?
Ravens solve multi-step puzzles, use tools, plan for future needs, recognise human faces and transmit social information — among the most intelligent birds known.

## What is the difference between a raven and a crow?
Ravens are much larger with wedge-shaped tails, thick bills and shaggy throat feathers. Their call is a deep croak rather than a caw. Ravens soar; crows flap more.

## Are ravens endangered?
No. Common ravens are Least Concern with roughly 16 million mature individuals and increasing populations in many regions after recovery from persecution.

## What do ravens eat?
Carrion, small animals, eggs, nestlings, insects, grain, fruit and human refuse. They are generalist scavengers and predators.

## Where do ravens live?
Across the Northern Hemisphere — Arctic tundra, forests, mountains, deserts and coastlines from North America through Europe and Asia to North Africa.

## Do ravens mate for life?
Pairs form long-term bonds and typically hold territories together for many years. Both parents raise chicks and may reuse the same nest site across decades.

## Are common ravens dangerous?
Common Ravens are not generally dangerous to people. The common raven (Corvus corax) is a Least Concern corvid of the Northern Hemisphere — the largest passerine, renowned for intelligence, tool use and deep cultural significance. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do common ravens live?
A precise wild lifespan for common ravens is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The common raven (Corvus corax) is a Least Concern corvid of the Northern Hemisphere — the largest passerine, renowned for intelligence, tool use and deep cultural significance. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a common raven?
A Common Raven is about 0.7–1.2+ kg — heaviest passerine. The common raven (Corvus corax) is a Least Concern corvid of the Northern Hemisphere — the largest passerine, renowned for intelligence, tool use and deep cultural significance.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/salamander): Salamander — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Salamanders are tailed amphibians of order Caudata; the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is Near Threatened in Europe, threatened by Bsal fungus linked to the pet trade, while many species face habitat loss and overharvesting.

## Introduction
Salamanders are tailed amphibians of the order Caudata, inhabiting moist forests, streams and caves across the Northern Hemisphere. The fire salamander — black with vivid yellow or orange warning markings — is among Europe's most recognisable amphibians and a staple of folklore. Listed as Near Threatened, fire salamanders face a lethal fungal disease called Bsal (Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans) spreading from the pet trade. Globally, over 40% of amphibian species are threatened — salamanders epitomise the crisis. They are popular in the exotic pet trade, yet most species need specialist cool, humid enclosures and live food. Chinese giant salamanders — the world's largest amphibians — are Critically Endangered from overharvesting.

## Takeaway
Salamanders are tailed amphibians — distinct from frogs and caecilians.

## Takeaway
Fire salamanders are Near Threatened; Bsal fungus devastates wild populations.

## Takeaway
Bsal spread is linked to the international amphibian pet trade.

## Takeaway
Chinese giant salamanders are Critically Endangered — largest amphibians on Earth.

## Takeaway
Most salamanders are poor beginner pets — they need cool, humid, specialist care.

## Takeaway
Amphibians indicate freshwater and forest health — their decline signals ecosystem stress.

## Amphibians of forest and stream
Salamanders belong to order Caudata — one of three living amphibian groups alongside frogs and caecilians. Roughly 760 species occupy moist habitats across the Northern Hemisphere, with greatest diversity in eastern North America and eastern Asia. They breathe through skin as well as lungs, requiring clean, damp environments.

The fire salamander ranges across European woodland from Iberia to Ukraine. Its aposematic yellow-on-black pattern warns predators of skin toxins — alkaloids called samandarin that can cause convulsions. Other species include the spotted salamander of North America, alpine newts of mountain streams and the bizarre olm — a blind cave-dweller of Balkan karst systems.

Salamanders undergo varied life histories. Some hatch as aquatic larvae with gills; others bear live young or skip the larval stage entirely. Fire salamanders give birth to fully formed juveniles — a rare strategy among amphibians.

## Wild salamanders and ecosystem role
In healthy forest ecosystems, salamanders are abundant predators of invertebrates — earthworms, slugs, insects and spiders. A single square metre of Appalachian forest floor may contain more biomass in salamanders than in birds and mammals combined. This hidden abundance regulates detritus food webs and nutrient cycling.

Fire salamanders are nocturnal, emerging after rain to hunt along stream banks and under logs. They are indicators of woodland and water quality — sensitive to pesticide runoff, acidification and habitat fragmentation. Populations persist in old-growth and well-connected forest; they vanish from intensively managed landscapes.

The olm — a pale, eyeless salamander of Slovenian caves — can live over 100 years, making it one of the longest-lived amphibians. Its extreme specialisation illustrates the vulnerability of range-restricted species.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/salamander): Salamander — wildlife guide.

## The pet trade and captive care
Salamanders are traded as exotic pets — fire salamanders, tiger salamanders and axolotls are common in the hobby. Axolotls — neotenic Mexican salamanders retaining larval form — are Critically Endangered in the wild but widely bred in captivity.

Responsible keeping demands cool temperatures (most species 10–18 °C), high humidity, live invertebrate food and secure enclosures preventing escape. Salamanders absorb chemicals through skin — tap water must be dechlorinated; pesticides are lethal. Many purchased on impulse die within months.

The international trade in wild-caught and captive-bred amphibians is the primary vector for Bsal — Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans — a chytrid fungus that causes skin lesions and rapid mortality. Bsal arrived in Europe from imported Asian newts and has wiped out fire salamander populations in the Netherlands and Belgium.

## Bsal and the amphibian crisis
Bsal represents an existential threat to salamander diversity. First detected in the Netherlands in 2013, it has caused up to 96% mortality in affected fire salamander populations within months. The fungus persists in soil and water, preventing recolonisation.

Genetic evidence traces Bsal to Asian salamander species carried asymptomatically in the pet trade. Europe's salamander fauna — with no evolutionary exposure — has no resistance. North America, home to the world's greatest salamander diversity, faces catastrophic risk if Bsal establishes.

The IUCN lists the fire salamander as Near Threatened; regional populations hit by Bsal qualify as Critically Endangered. Chinese giant salamanders — reaching 1.8 metres — are Critically Endangered from overharvesting for food and traditional medicine. CITES Appendix I protects the Chinese giant salamander.

## Protecting salamanders wild and captive
Conservation requires biosecurity: disinfecting footwear near amphibian habitat, never releasing pet salamanders into the wild and supporting trade restrictions on high-risk species. Several European countries ban imports of certain Asian salamanders.

Habitat protection — maintaining damp woodland, clean streams and connected corridors — benefits wild populations. Captive assurance colonies may preserve genetics if Bsal makes field recovery impossible.

Readers considering salamanders as pets should research species-specific needs, buy only captive-bred animals from reputable sources and never release unwanted animals outdoors. WARN publishes this salamander guide as free public education about amphibians whose quiet decline carries warnings for freshwater ecosystems worldwide.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this salamander guide as free public education. Amphibians are among the most threatened vertebrate groups — understanding their ecology and the pet trade's role in disease spread supports informed conservation.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/salamander): Salamander — wildlife guide.

## Are salamanders good pets?
Salamanders need specialist care — cool temperatures, high humidity and live food. They are not suitable for beginners. Never release pet salamanders into the wild; they may carry Bsal fungus.

## What is Bsal?
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is a chytrid fungus lethal to salamanders. It spread to Europe via the pet trade and has devastated fire salamander populations in the Netherlands and Belgium.

## Are fire salamanders endangered?
Fire salamanders are Near Threatened globally. Populations affected by Bsal have suffered up to 96% mortality. Chinese giant salamanders are Critically Endangered.

## What is the difference between a salamander and a newt?
Newts are a subgroup of salamanders — typically semi-aquatic with smoother skin. All newts are salamanders, but not all salamanders are newts.

## Are salamanders dangerous?
Chinese giant salamanders — the world's largest amphibians — are Critically Endangered from overharvesting. Give wild salamanders space; do not corner or handle them.

## How long do salamanders live?
A precise wild lifespan for salamanders is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Salamanders are tailed amphibians of order Caudata; the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is Near Threatened in Europe, threatened by Bsal fungus linked to the pet trade, while many species face habitat loss and overharvesting. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a salamander?
A Salamander is about 15–25 cm (fire salamander). Salamanders are tailed amphibians of order Caudata; the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is Near Threatened in Europe, threatened by Bsal fungus linked to the pet trade, while many species face habitat loss and overharvesting.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/eel): Eel — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is a Critically Endangered catadromous fish spawning in the Sargasso Sea; populations have declined over 90% since the 1970s from dams, pollution, fisheries and illegal trade.

## Introduction
The European eel is a serpentine fish that has puzzled naturalists for millennia. Born in the Sargasso Sea, leaf-like larvae drift on ocean currents toward European rivers, transforming into glass eels, then elvers that ascend streams and lakes. After years — sometimes decades — in freshwater, silver eels migrate thousands of kilometres back to the Sargasso to spawn and die. Listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN, European eel populations have collapsed by over 90% since the 1970s. Dams block migration, pollution degrades habitat, disease spreads in aquaculture and illegal trafficking of glass eels feeds Asian farming.

## Takeaway
European eels spawn in the Sargasso Sea — their exact spawning grounds were mystery until recently.

## Takeaway
Populations have declined over 90% since the 1970s — Critically Endangered.

## Takeaway
Dams and weirs block upstream migration of elvers and downstream passage of silver eels.

## Takeaway
Illegal trafficking of glass eels to Asia is a multi-million-pound criminal trade.

## Takeaway
Eels can live 80+ years in freshwater before returning to sea to spawn once.

## Takeaway
Eel passes and dam removal are essential for migration recovery.

## A life cycle spanning ocean and river
European eels are catadromous — they spawn in salt water and grow in fresh water, the reverse of salmon. Adults leave European rivers each autumn as silver eels, descending to the Atlantic and swimming roughly 6,500 km to the Sargasso Sea to spawn. All eels die after spawning; larvae hatch as leaf-shaped leptocephali that drift toward Europe over one to three years.

Near continental shelves, larvae metamorphose into transparent glass eels — entering estuaries in spring. They darken into elvers, ascending rivers, climbing wet walls and even crossing wet grassland to reach lakes and streams. Yellow eels grow in freshwater for 5–20 years — occasionally over 80 — before transforming into silver eels for the final ocean migration.

This extraordinary life cycle, once opaque to science, was pieced together over centuries. Johannes Schmidt confirmed the Sargasso spawning ground in the 1920s after decades of ocean surveys.

## Ecology and cultural importance
Eels are nocturnal predators, eating invertebrates, fish and carrion. They occupy diverse habitats — rivers, lakes, canals and estuaries — tolerating low oxygen better than most fish. As apex freshwater predators, they regulate invertebrate and fish communities.

Eels hold deep cultural significance in Europe. Jellied eels are an East End London tradition; smoked eel is prized in the Netherlands and Scandinavia. Eel fishing supported rural economies for centuries. Decline has silenced traditions tied to seasonal runs.

The American eel (Anguilla rostrata) shares the Sargasso spawning ground and faces similar threats — Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Japanese eels (Anguilla japonica) are Endangered; demand for glass eels drives illegal trade from Europe.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/eel): Eel — wildlife guide.

## Why eels are collapsing
Multiple pressures compound. Hydropower dams and weirs block migration — elvers cannot ascend; silver eels cannot descend, dying in turbines or starving downstream of barriers. Thousands of barriers fragment European rivers.

Pollution — pesticides, industrial chemicals and microplastics — accumulates in eel tissue. Anguillicoloides crassus, a parasitic nematode introduced from Asia, damages swim bladders and migration ability.

Fisheries target glass eels for restocking and export to Asian aquaculture. Illegal trafficking — smuggling live glass eels in luggage — is organised crime worth millions annually. Climate change may alter ocean currents that carry larvae toward Europe.

## Conservation and recovery efforts
The IUCN lists the European eel as Critically Endangered with a continuing decline. The EU Eel Regulation requires member states to restore escapement of silver eels. Eel passes — ramps and lifts at dams — improve connectivity. Dam removal on rivers like the Rhine tributaries shows measurable recovery in passage.

CITES Appendix II regulates international trade. Europol coordinates enforcement against glass eel smuggling. Captive breeding has not yet replaced wild glass eel collection for aquaculture.

Citizen science — eel monitoring in rivers — tracks recruitment. Reducing pollution, removing obsolete barriers and refusing to buy illegally sourced eel supports recovery.

## Eels and the future of rivers
The eel's decline is a measure of river health across Europe. Restoring eel populations requires free-flowing rivers — the same connectivity that benefits salmon, otters and freshwater biodiversity.

Asian eel farming depends heavily on wild-caught glass eels from Europe and Morocco — an unsustainable pipeline that criminal networks exploit. Sustainable aquaculture must develop captive breeding or accept reduced production.

WARN publishes this eel guide as free public education about a Critically Endangered species whose recovery depends on river restoration, trade enforcement and the political will to reconnect waterways across a continent.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this eel guide as free public education. Freshwater connectivity — free-flowing rivers — benefits eels, otters and entire aquatic ecosystems across Europe and beyond.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/eel): Eel — wildlife guide.

## Are European eels endangered?
Yes. The IUCN lists the European eel as Critically Endangered with over 90% population decline since the 1970s.

## Where do eels come from?
European eels spawn in the Sargasso Sea. Larvae drift on ocean currents to Europe, enter rivers as glass eels and grow in freshwater before returning to the Sargasso to spawn.

## Why are eels declining?
Dams blocking migration, pollution, disease, overfishing of glass eels and illegal trafficking to Asian aquaculture. Climate change may affect larval drift.

## How long do eels live?
European eels can live 80+ years in freshwater before migrating to the Sargasso Sea once to spawn and die.

## What is glass eel trafficking?
Illegal smuggling of juvenile eels from Europe to Asia for aquaculture — organised crime worth millions annually. CITES Appendix II regulates trade.

## Can eels climb dams?
Elvers climb wet surfaces and can bypass some natural obstacles. Most dams require eel passes — ramps or lifts — for upstream and downstream migration.

## Are european eels dangerous?
European Eels are not generally dangerous to people. The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is a Critically Endangered catadromous fish spawning in the Sargasso Sea; populations have declined over 90% since the 1970s from dams, pollution, fisheries and illegal trade. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How big is an european eel?
An European Eel is about 60–100 cm (females larger). The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is a Critically Endangered catadromous fish spawning in the Sargasso Sea; populations have declined over 90% since the 1970s from dams, pollution, fisheries and illegal trade.

## What do european eels eat?
Eels are nocturnal predators, eating invertebrates, fish and carrion. The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is a Critically Endangered catadromous fish spawning in the Sargasso Sea; populations have declined over 90% since the 1970s from dams, pollution, fisheries and illegal trade.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/pufferfish): Pufferfish — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) are roughly 200 species of toxic, inflatable fish worldwide; IUCN status varies — Chinese puffer Critically Endangered — threatened by overfishing, habitat loss and bycatch.

## Introduction
Pufferfish — family Tetraodontidae — are among the ocean's most distinctive fish. When threatened, they inflate their elastic stomachs with water or air, transforming into spiny balls too large for most predators to swallow. Many species carry tetrodotoxin — one of nature's most potent neurotoxins — in skin, liver and ovaries. Roughly 200 species inhabit tropical and temperate seas worldwide. IUCN status varies sharply: the Chinese puffer is Critically Endangered from overfishing; many reef species are Data Deficient. Pufferfish are traded for aquariums and consumed as fugu in Japan — a delicacy requiring licensed preparation. Habitat loss, overfishing and bycatch threaten populations across their range.

## Takeaway
Pufferfish inflate with water when threatened — a defence against swallowing.

## Takeaway
Tetrodotoxin in skin and organs is lethal; fugu chefs require years of training.

## Takeaway
Chinese puffer is Critically Endangered from overfishing in East Asia.

## Takeaway
Many reef pufferfish are popular aquarium species — wild collection threatens some populations.

## Takeaway
Pufferfish graze coral and algae — important reef herbivores in healthy ecosystems.

## Takeaway
Bycatch in trawl and seine fisheries kills non-target pufferfish across tropical seas.

## The inflatable defence
Pufferfish belong to order Tetraodontiformes alongside porcupinefish and boxfish. Their name reflects four fused teeth forming a beak-like plate — ideal for crushing crustaceans, molluscs and hard coral. When alarmed, muscles pump water into a distensible stomach, expanding the body two to three times normal size. Spines erect; fins lock. Most predators retreat.

Tetrodotoxin — TTX — blocks sodium channels in nerve tissue. A single fish can carry enough toxin to kill dozens of people. Pufferfish do not produce TTX themselves; symbiotic bacteria in the gut synthesise it. Some populations are more toxic than others depending on bacterial communities and diet.

Species range from 2 cm dwarfs to 60 cm giants. Colours span cryptic browns to vivid blues and yellows advertising toxicity.

## Reef ecology and behaviour
On coral reefs, pufferfish occupy niches as herbivores and invertebrate predators. Species like the stars-and-stripes puffer graze algae that would otherwise smother coral. Others hunt crabs, snails and sea urchins on sand flats and seagrass beds.

Behaviour varies from solitary territorial species to shoaling estuarine forms. Some pufferfish create circular sand nests — males fan sediments with fins and mouth to expose clean substrate for egg laying, a behaviour studied as evidence of fish intelligence and tool use.

Reproduction typically involves demersal eggs guarded by males. Larvae drift in plankton before settling to reef or estuary habitat. Slow growth and late maturity make populations vulnerable to overfishing.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/pufferfish): Pufferfish — wildlife guide.

## Fugu, fisheries and overfishing
In Japan, pufferfish — fugu — is a prized delicacy. Chefs train for years and hold licences to remove toxic organs safely. Despite precautions, deaths occur annually from improperly prepared fish. Illegal fugu trade persists.

East Asian fisheries have devastated several species. The Chinese puffer (Takifugu chinensis) is Critically Endangered — overfished for food across the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. Populations of the Japanese pufferfish (Takifugu rubripes) have also declined from intensive harvest.

Bycatch in shrimp trawls and seine nets kills pufferfish across Indo-Pacific reefs. Trawl fisheries discard or land non-target pufferfish with little monitoring. Data Deficient status for most species masks potential declines.

## Aquarium trade and habitat loss
Colourful species — figure-eight puffers, green spotted puffers, Valentini puffers — are popular in marine and brackish aquariums. Wild collection from reefs in Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka supplies the trade. Captive breeding is limited; most aquarium puffers are wild-caught.

Coral reef degradation from bleaching, pollution and dynamite fishing removes pufferfish habitat. Estuarine species face mangrove clearance and coastal development. Climate change and ocean acidification threaten reef ecosystems that support reef-associated puffers.

Responsible aquarium keeping requires large tanks, species-appropriate salinity and permanent commitment — pufferfish live 10+ years and need hard-shelled food to wear down ever-growing teeth.

## Conservation outlook
Conservation action must be species-specific. The Chinese puffer needs fishing moratoria and stock recovery programmes. Reef pufferfish benefit from marine protected areas, sustainable aquarium certification and bycatch reduction in trawl fisheries.

Improved taxonomy and Red List assessment for Data Deficient species is urgent. Without baseline data, declines go unnoticed until populations collapse — as with the Chinese puffer.

Readers can support pufferfish conservation through sustainable seafood choices, avoiding wild-caught aquarium fish without traceability and advocating for marine protected areas. WARN publishes this pufferfish guide as free public education about reef fish facing pressure from fisheries, trade and habitat loss.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this pufferfish guide as free public education. Reef fish like pufferfish depend on healthy coral ecosystems — the same habitats WARN's coastal education programmes help readers understand and protect.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/pufferfish): Pufferfish — wildlife guide.

## Are pufferfish poisonous?
Many species carry tetrodotoxin — one of the most potent natural toxins — in skin, liver and ovaries. A single fish can be lethal. Fugu chefs train for years to prepare them safely.

## Why do pufferfish inflate?
Inflation is a defence — the fish gulps water to expand its body and erect spines, becoming too large for most predators to swallow.

## Are pufferfish endangered?
Status varies by species. The Chinese puffer is Critically Endangered from overfishing. Many reef species are Data Deficient with insufficient population data.

## Where do pufferfish live?
Pufferfish live in Tropical and temperate seas worldwide — coral reefs, estuaries and open coast. Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) are roughly 200 species of toxic, inflatable fish worldwide; IUCN status varies — Chinese puffer Critically Endangered — threatened by overfishing, habitat loss and bycatch.

## Are pufferfish dangerous?
Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) are roughly 200 species of toxic, inflatable fish worldwide; IUCN status varies — Chinese puffer Critically Endangered — threatened by overfishing, habitat loss and bycatch. Give wild pufferfish space; do not corner them.

## How long do pufferfish live?
Pufferfish typically live 10+ years with proper care. Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) are roughly 200 species of toxic, inflatable fish worldwide; IUCN status varies — Chinese puffer Critically Endangered — threatened by overfishing, habitat loss and bycatch. Wild and captive figures can differ; use the sources listed on the guide for the underlying studies.

## How big is a pufferfish?
A Pufferfish is about 10+ years with proper care. Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) are roughly 200 species of toxic, inflatable fish worldwide; IUCN status varies — Chinese puffer Critically Endangered — threatened by overfishing, habitat loss and bycatch.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/clownfish): Clownfish — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The ocellaris clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) is a Least Concern anemonefish of the Indo-Pacific, dependent on coral reef and anemone habitat; reef degradation and past wild collection threaten populations.

## Introduction
Clownfish — genus Amphiprion — are small, brightly coloured reef fish famous for their symbiosis with sea anemones. The ocellaris clownfish, popularised by animation, has an orange body with three white bands edged in black. Clownfish shelter among anemone tentacles, immune to stings, and feed on algae, plankton and anemone leftovers. Listed as Least Concern, ocellaris clownfish remain locally abundant on healthy reefs, but coral reef degradation threatens all 30 clownfish species. Wild collection for aquariums depleted some populations before captive breeding largely replaced wild harvest. Clownfish are protandrous hermaphrodites — all hatch male, and the dominant fish becomes female.

## Takeaway
Clownfish live symbiotically with sea anemones — immune to their stinging tentacles.

## Takeaway
All clownfish hatch male; the dominant individual becomes female.

## Takeaway
Ocellaris clownfish are Least Concern but entirely dependent on reef habitat.

## Takeaway
Captive breeding now supplies most aquarium clownfish — reducing wild collection.

## Takeaway
Coral bleaching and reef destruction threaten all clownfish species.

## Takeaway
Clownfish fan eggs and maintain strict hierarchy within anemone groups.

## Life in the anemone
Clownfish form obligate mutualisms with sea anemones — primarily species of Heteractis and Stichodactyla. Anemone tentacles deliver stinging nematocysts to predators; clownfish develop mucus coatings that prevent stings. In return, clownfish defend anemones from butterflyfish and provide nutrients through waste and food scraps.

Ocellaris clownfish inhabit lagoons and outer reef slopes from the Andaman Sea to the western Pacific. Groups of two to six fish — a dominant breeding pair and subordinate males — occupy a single anemone. Hierarchy is strict; subordinates remain small to avoid aggression.

The iconic orange-and-white colouration varies — black ocellaris morphs occur naturally in some regions. Closely related percula clownfish (Amphiprion percula) look nearly identical but have spiny cheek scales and a different dorsal fin spine count.

## Reproduction and sex change
Clownfish are protandrous hermaphrodites — all individuals hatch male and become female only if they rise to dominance. When the dominant female dies, the largest male transforms — a process taking weeks — and the next subordinate male matures.

Breeding pairs lay eggs on flat surfaces near the anemone — rocks, shells or ceramic tiles in aquaria. The male fans eggs with fins to oxygenate them and removes dead eggs. Hatching occurs after six to eight days; larvae drift in plankton for roughly ten days before settling to find an anemone host.

This life history makes populations resilient to moderate fishing but vulnerable when anemones die from bleaching — larvae settle but find no hosts.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/clownfish): Clownfish — wildlife guide.

## Reef dependence and bleaching
Clownfish cannot survive without host anemones, and anemones depend on coral reef ecosystems for light, water quality and stable substrate. Mass bleaching events — driven by warming oceans — kill anemones alongside coral. After the 2016 and 2017 bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef, anemone density dropped sharply in affected areas.

Ocean acidification may impair larval settlement and sensory ability to locate anemones. Pollution and sedimentation smother reef habitat. Dynamite fishing and anchor damage destroy anemone colonies outright.

Least Concern Red List status reflects current abundance on healthy reefs — not future security. Climate projections suggest most coral reefs will functionally disappear if warming exceeds 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.

## Aquarium trade and captive breeding
Clownfish became the world's most recognisable reef fish after popular films — driving aquarium demand. Wild collection in the Philippines, Indonesia and Maldives depleted local populations in the 1990s and 2000s. Collectors sometimes use sodium cyanide to stun fish — a practice that kills coral and non-target species.

Captive breeding revolutionised the trade. Most ocellaris clownfish sold today are tank-raised, reducing wild harvest pressure. Captive-bred fish are hardier, accept prepared food and do not deplete reef populations.

Buyers should verify captive-bred sourcing. Wild-caught clownfish labelled 'tank-raised' may have been collected as juveniles. Sustainable certification programmes exist but coverage remains incomplete.

## Protecting clownfish and reefs
Clownfish conservation is reef conservation. Marine protected areas, reduced carbon emissions, sustainable fishing and pollution control protect the anemone-coral habitat clownfish require. Local projects in the Philippines and Indonesia restock anemones in degraded areas.

Research into larval dispersal reveals connectivity between reef patches — protecting one site benefits populations kilometres away. Clownfish serve as accessible ambassadors for reef crisis — familiar, charismatic and entirely dependent on ecosystems under severe threat.

WARN publishes this clownfish guide as free public education. Choosing captive-bred aquarium fish and supporting reef protection are direct actions readers can take for clownfish and the broader Indo-Pacific coral ecosystem.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this clownfish guide as free public education for readers in Indonesia, Malaysia and other Indo-Pacific nations where coral reefs and the aquarium trade intersect.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/clownfish): Clownfish — wildlife guide.

## Are clownfish endangered?
Ocellaris clownfish are Least Concern, but all clownfish depend on coral reefs and anemones threatened by bleaching, pollution and climate change.

## Why do clownfish live in anemones?
Anemone tentacles protect clownfish from predators. Clownfish mucus prevents stings. In return, clownfish defend anemones and provide nutrients.

## Do clownfish change sex?
Yes. Clownfish are protandrous hermaphrodites — all hatch male. The dominant fish becomes female; if she dies, the largest male transforms to replace her.

## Should I buy wild or captive-bred clownfish?
Always choose captive-bred. Most ocellaris clownfish in the trade are now tank-raised. Wild collection can involve cyanide fishing that damages reefs.

## What do clownfish eat?
Algae, zooplankton, small crustaceans and leftovers from anemone prey. In aquaria they accept prepared marine foods.

## Where do clownfish live?
Ocellaris clownfish inhabit lagoons and outer reef slopes from the Andaman Sea to the western Pacific, sheltering among host sea anemones such as Heteractis and Stichodactyla. They are Least Concern but entirely dependent on coral reef and anemone habitat threatened by bleaching and degradation.

## Are clownfish dangerous?
Clownfish are not dangerous to people. The ocellaris clownfish reaches up to 10 cm and lives among anemone tentacles that would sting most fish. Groups of two to six fish occupy a single anemone under a strict hierarchy. They defend their host from butterflyfish but pose no threat to divers.

## How big is a clownfish?
The ocellaris clownfish reaches a maximum length of about 10 cm. It has an orange body with three white bands edged in black. Roughly 30 clownfish species exist in genus Amphiprion across the Indo-Pacific, with greatest diversity in South-east Asia.

## How long do clownfish live?
A precise wild lifespan for clownfish is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The ocellaris clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) is a Least Concern anemonefish of the Indo-Pacific, dependent on coral reef and anemone habitat; reef degradation and past wild collection threaten populations. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/salmon): Salmon — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is Least Concern globally but Endangered in much of its southern range; anadromous fish threatened by dams, aquaculture, sea lice, overfishing and river pollution.

## Introduction
Atlantic salmon are anadromous — born in rivers, migrating to sea to grow, returning to spawn in the streams where they hatched. Silver-scaled and powerful, they leap waterfalls and navigate by smell to find natal gravels. Listed as Least Concern globally, Atlantic salmon mask a conservation emergency: populations in England, Wales and the southern edge of their range are Endangered or Critically Endangered. Wild Scottish and Irish runs have halved since the 1970s. Dams, pollution, aquaculture disease, overfishing at sea and climate change threaten every stage of the life cycle. Pacific salmon species — sockeye, chinook, coho — face parallel pressures across North America and Asia.

## Takeaway
Atlantic salmon hatch in rivers, feed at sea and return to spawn in natal streams.

## Takeaway
Globally Least Concern but Endangered in England, Wales and southern Europe.

## Takeaway
Open-net salmon farms spread sea lice and disease to wild fish.

## Takeaway
Dams and weirs block upstream migration; bycatch in mixed fisheries kills adults.

## Takeaway
Salmon navigate by olfactory memory — pollution impairs homing ability.

## Takeaway
Dam removal and river restoration show measurable recovery in some systems.

## River birth, ocean life
Atlantic salmon begin life as eggs laid in gravel redds — nests dug by females in clean, oxygenated stream beds. Eggs overwinter; alevins emerge with yolk sacs attached. As parr, they develop vertical bars and hold territories in freshwater for one to four years before smolting — transforming for sea entry.

Smolts migrate downstream, adjusting osmoregulation for salt water. They feed in the North Atlantic — primarily off Greenland — growing rapidly on crustaceans and fish. After one to three years at sea, adults return to natal rivers, often between June and November, navigating by olfactory memory of stream chemistry.

Spawning adults develop hooked jaws (kype) in males and darken. After spawning, most die — nutrients from their bodies fertilise headwater ecosystems. A small proportion may survive to spawn again.

## Ecological keystone of rivers
Salmon transport marine nutrients into freshwater and forest ecosystems. Bears, otters, eagles and ospreys depend on salmon runs. Carcasses left by predators enrich stream banks with nitrogen and phosphorus, boosting tree growth and invertebrate production.

Declining salmon runs cascade through food webs. Pacific northwest forests show reduced growth rings correlated with collapsed salmon returns. In Scotland, otter and eagle populations track salmon abundance.

Clean, cold, fast-flowing water with gravel beds defines salmon habitat. Siltation from forestry and agriculture smothers eggs. Warm water from climate change and abstraction reduces oxygen and triggers stress.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/salmon): Salmon — wildlife guide.

## Aquaculture, dams and bycatch
Open-net pen salmon farming — concentrated in Scotland, Norway, Chile and Canada — produces millions of tonnes annually but threatens wild fish. Sea lice from farms infest passing wild smolts and adults at lethal levels. Escaped farmed salmon interbreed with wild fish, reducing genetic fitness. Infectious salmon anaemia and other diseases spread from farms to wild populations.

Dams and weirs fragment rivers — the River Thames lost salmon entirely after weir construction. Fish passes help but rarely achieve full connectivity. Hydropower turbines kill downstream migrants.

At sea, salmon face mixed-stock fisheries — nets and longlines catching multiple populations indiscriminately. Bycatch in trawl fisheries for mackerel and herring adds mortality. Illegal fishing and unreported catch persist in some North Atlantic fisheries.

## Conservation and recovery
The IUCN lists Atlantic salmon as Least Concern globally — a status critics argue masks regional collapse. UK populations are Endangered; southern European stocks Critically Endangered. North American runs vary from healthy in Alaska to Endangered in Maine.

Recovery tools include dam removal — the Penobscot River restoration in Maine reopened hundreds of kilometres of habitat — riparian planting, pollution control and transitioning aquaculture to closed containment systems. The NASCO convention coordinates North Atlantic management.

Anglers practice catch-and-release; some rivers are entirely protected. Hatchery supplementation remains controversial — hatchery fish may compete with or genetically dilute wild stocks.

## Salmon and the future of rivers
Salmon embody the connection between ocean health and river integrity. Saving wild salmon requires action across the full life cycle — from headwater gravel to open-ocean feeding grounds.

Climate change shifts ocean productivity and river temperature regimes. Southern range edges may lose salmon entirely within decades. Northern rivers may gain suitability — but net global habitat is projected to shrink.

Readers can support salmon through sustainable seafood certification, advocacy for dam removal and river protection, and choosing farmed salmon only from closed-containment or land-based systems. WARN publishes this salmon guide as free public education about a species whose struggle defines Atlantic river conservation.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this salmon guide as free public education. Free-flowing rivers and sustainable fisheries benefit salmon, eels and entire freshwater ecosystems.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/salmon): Salmon — wildlife guide.

## Are salmon endangered?
Globally Atlantic salmon are Least Concern, but populations in England, Wales and southern Europe are Endangered or Critically Endangered. Many runs have halved since the 1970s.

## Why do salmon return to the same river?
Salmon imprint on the chemical signature of their natal stream as smolts. Olfactory memory guides adults back to spawn — pollution can disrupt this homing ability.

## How does salmon farming affect wild salmon?
Open-net farms spread sea lice, disease and escaped farmed fish that interbreed with wild salmon — reducing fitness and increasing mortality of wild populations.

## What is bycatch for salmon?
Salmon are caught incidentally in mixed fisheries targeting mackerel, herring and other species. Unreported and illegal catch at sea adds mortality to already depleted stocks.

## What do atlantic salmons eat?
The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is Least Concern globally but Endangered in much of its southern range; anadromous fish threatened by dams, aquaculture, sea lice, overfishing and river pollution. The guide's ecology sections give the prey or forage detail behind that summary.

## Where do atlantic salmons live?
Atlantic Salmons live in North Atlantic — rivers of Europe and North America; ocean feeding grounds off Greenland. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is Least Concern globally but Endangered in much of its southern range; anadromous fish threatened by dams, aquaculture, sea lice, overfishing and river pollution.

## Are atlantic salmons dangerous?
Atlantic Salmons are not generally dangerous to people. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is Least Concern globally but Endangered in much of its southern range; anadromous fish threatened by dams, aquaculture, sea lice, overfishing and river pollution. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do atlantic salmons live?
A precise wild lifespan for atlantic salmons is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is Least Concern globally but Endangered in much of its southern range; anadromous fish threatened by dams, aquaculture, sea lice, overfishing and river pollution. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is an atlantic salmon?
An Atlantic Salmon is about Up to 150 cm; typically 60–80 cm. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is Least Concern globally but Endangered in much of its southern range; anadromous fish threatened by dams, aquaculture, sea lice, overfishing and river pollution. Conservation status: Sea lice, disease, escapes.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tuna): Tuna — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is Least Concern after stock recovery (IUCN, 2021); Southern bluefin is Endangered. Global tuna fisheries face overfishing, bycatch of sharks and turtles, and IUU fishing.

## Introduction
Tuna are among the ocean's most powerful fish — streamlined, warm-blooded predators capable of sustained speeds exceeding 70 km/h. Atlantic bluefin tuna, the largest tunas, reach over 450 kg and fetch extraordinary prices at Tokyo fish markets. Decades of overfishing collapsed Atlantic bluefin to Critically Endangered levels before management recovered eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stocks sufficiently for the IUCN to reassess as Least Concern in 2021. Southern bluefin tuna remains Endangered. Pacific bluefin is Near Threatened. Longline and purse-seine fisheries target tuna globally; bycatch of sharks, turtles and seabirds on tuna gear is a major conservation crisis. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing persists.

## Takeaway
Tuna are warm-blooded — maintaining body temperature above surrounding water.

## Takeaway
Atlantic bluefin recovered to Least Concern after decades of quota management.

## Takeaway
Southern bluefin tuna remains Endangered with roughly 7% of historic biomass.

## Takeaway
Longline tuna fisheries kill an estimated 100,000+ sharks annually as bycatch.

## Takeaway
A single Atlantic bluefin sold for over $3 million at Tokyo auction in 2019.

## Takeaway
MSC-certified pole-and-line tuna reduces bycatch compared with purse seines.

## Ocean athletes
Tuna belong to family Scombridae — mackerels and bonitos. Their fusiform bodies, crescent tails and retractable fins minimise drag. A vascular counter-current heat exchanger — rete mirabile — retains muscle heat, allowing tuna to maintain body temperatures 10–15 °C above ambient water. Warm muscles sustain high-speed pursuit of mackerel, herring, squid and sardines.

Atlantic bluefin spawn in warm waters — Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea — then migrate to rich feeding grounds in the North Atlantic. Fish tagged off Ireland have crossed the Atlantic within weeks. Lifespan reaches 40 years; sexual maturity takes 8–12 years, making populations slow to recover from overfishing.

Eight Thunnus species range across global oceans. Yellowfin, skipjack and albacore support the canned tuna industry — the world's most consumed fish after shrimp.

## Overfishing and stock collapse
Industrial tuna fishing expanded after the Second World War. Purse seines encircled entire schools; longlines set kilometres of baited hooks. Atlantic bluefin populations in the western Atlantic fell to roughly 20% of historic levels by the 2000s — assessed as Endangered, then Critically Endangered.

The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas — ICCAT — sets quotas. Controversial management allowed overfishing for decades; improved enforcement and quota cuts from 2008 enabled eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean recovery. The 2021 IUCN reassessment to Least Concern reflects this partial recovery — not universal security.

Southern bluefin tuna — spawning in Indonesian waters — remains Endangered at roughly 7% of unfished biomass. Pacific bluefin is Near Threatened. Illegal fishing and under-reporting persist across all oceans.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tuna): Tuna — wildlife guide.

## Bycatch and fisheries impact
Tuna fisheries kill vast numbers of non-target species. Longline gear — billions of hooks set annually — catches sharks, marlin, seabirds and turtles. An estimated 100,000+ sharks die on tuna longlines each year; many finned and discarded. Purse seines using fish-aggregating devices entangle turtles and juvenile tuna alongside target species.

Dolphin-safe tuna labels address one bycatch issue — purse seines setting on dolphin-associated yellowfin schools in the eastern Pacific — but do not cover shark, turtle or seabird mortality on longlines.

Pole-and-line and handline fisheries — traditional methods in the Maldives, Indonesia and the Azores — catch tuna individually with minimal bycatch. MSC certification helps consumers identify lower-impact products, though certification standards remain debated.

## Trade, CITES and management
Atlantic bluefin trade is regulated under CITES Appendix II — export permits required since 2010 after conservation pressure. A single fish sold for ¥333 million (over $3 million) at Tokyo's Toyosu Market in 2019 — publicity that drives fishing pressure despite stock recovery.

Regional Fisheries Management Organisations — ICCAT, IOTC, WCPFC — coordinate quotas across ocean basins. Enforcement varies; IUU fishing supplies an estimated 20% of global tuna catch. Electronic monitoring and observer programmes improve compliance but coverage remains incomplete.

Aquaculture fattening — capturing wild bluefin and growing them in pens — still depends on wild capture for stock. Closed-cycle captive breeding is advancing but not yet commercially dominant.

## Choosing sustainable tuna
Consumers shape tuna fisheries through purchasing choices. Pole-and-line, handline and troll-caught tuna minimise bycatch. MSC and similar certifications indicate independently audited fisheries — though standards and enforcement vary.

Avoiding bluefin tuna — particularly from overfished stocks — reduces pressure on the most valuable and historically depleted species. Canned skipjack from well-managed purse-seine fisheries offers a lower-impact option when sourcing is verified.

WARN publishes this tuna guide as free public education about fisheries that feed billions while driving shark declines, turtle mortality and the industrial extraction of ocean predators.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this tuna guide as free public education for readers in coastal nations where tuna fisheries, bycatch and food security intersect.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tuna): Tuna — wildlife guide.

## Are tuna endangered?
Atlantic bluefin is Least Concern after recovery (IUCN, 2021). Southern bluefin is Endangered. Pacific bluefin is Near Threatened. Status varies by species and stock.

## Why is bluefin tuna so expensive?
Scarcity, high demand in Japanese sushi markets and slow growth to maturity drive prices. A single fish sold for over $3 million at Tokyo auction in 2019.

## What is tuna bycatch?
Non-target species caught on tuna gear — sharks, marlin, turtles and seabirds on longlines; juvenile tuna and turtles in purse seines. An estimated 100,000+ sharks die on tuna longlines annually.

## What is the most sustainable tuna?
Pole-and-line and handline-caught tuna minimise bycatch. Look for MSC certification and species-specific sourcing information on labels.

## Where do tunas live?
Tunas live in Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea — spawns in Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean. Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is Least Concern after stock recovery (IUCN, 2021); Southern bluefin is Endangered. Global tuna fisheries face overfishing, bycatch of sharks and turtles, and IUU fishing.

## Are tunas dangerous?
Tunas are not generally dangerous to people. Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is Least Concern after stock recovery (IUCN, 2021); Southern bluefin is Endangered. Global tuna fisheries face overfishing, bycatch of sharks and turtles, and IUU fishing. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do tunas live?
A precise wild lifespan for tunas is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is Least Concern after stock recovery (IUCN, 2021); Southern bluefin is Endangered. Global tuna fisheries face overfishing, bycatch of sharks and turtles, and IUU fishing. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/swordfish): Swordfish — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The swordfish (Xiphias gladius) is a Least Concern billfish of global oceans, managed in the Atlantic but overfished in the Mediterranean; longline fisheries cause shark and turtle bycatch.

## Introduction
The swordfish is one of the ocean's most recognisable predators — a large, fast billfish named for its elongated, flat rostrum used to slash through schools of prey. Capable of depths exceeding 800 metres and speeds over 80 km/h, swordfish roam tropical and temperate seas worldwide. Listed as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2021, global populations appear stable or recovering under management in the Atlantic. Regional overfishing persists in the Mediterranean and parts of the Pacific. Longline fisheries targeting swordfish and tuna kill significant bycatch — sharks, turtles and marlin. Swordfish steaks are widely consumed; mercury accumulation in large individuals raises human health concerns.

## Takeaway
Swordfish use their bill to slash through schools of fish and squid.

## Takeaway
They are Least Concern globally but overfished in the Mediterranean.

## Takeaway
Longline fisheries targeting swordfish kill sharks, turtles and marlin as bycatch.

## Takeaway
Swordfish are among the fastest fish — exceeding 80 km/h in short bursts.

## Takeaway
Large swordfish accumulate mercury — consumption advisories apply in many countries.

## Takeaway
Night fishing reduces turtle bycatch compared with daytime longline sets.

## The billfish predator
Xiphias gladius is the sole species in family Xiphiidae — distinct from marlin and sailfish in family Istiophoridae. The rostrum — the 'sword' — is flat, sharp-edged and roughly one-third body length. Swordfish slash sideways through schools of mackerel, herring and squid, stunning or injuring prey before swallowing.

Swordfish are endothermic — maintaining brain and eye temperatures above ambient water for sharp vision during deep dives. They descend to over 800 metres pursuing squid and deep-water fish — among the deepest-diving billfish.

Adults exceed 200 kg; the largest recorded approached 650 kg. Females grow larger than males. Lifespan reaches 15 years; maturity at 4–5 years.

## Global fisheries and overfishing
Swordfish support commercial fisheries worldwide — longlines, harpoons and gillnets. The Atlantic stock — managed by ICCAT — recovered from overfishing in the 1990s to sustainable levels under quota management. The 2021 IUCN reassessment to Least Concern reflects this Atlantic recovery.

The Mediterranean stock tells a different story — chronically overfished with catches exceeding scientific advice for decades. Mediterranean swordfish are smaller and younger at capture, indicating serial depletion. Pacific and Indian Ocean stocks lack comprehensive assessment; data deficiency masks potential decline.

Drift gillnets — banned on the high seas but persisting illegally — entangle swordfish alongside whales, dolphins and sharks. Harpoon fisheries off California and the Azores catch swordfish selectively with minimal bycatch.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/swordfish): Swordfish — wildlife guide.

## Bycatch on longlines
Pelagic longlines — kilometres of baited hooks set at varying depths — are the primary swordfish capture method. They also kill enormous bycatch. Blue sharks, shortfin mako and other shark species dominate longline catch — often finned and discarded. Loggerhead and leatherback turtles drown on hooks; seabirds take baits near the surface.

Research shows circle hooks and fish bait reduce turtle capture compared with J-hooks and squid bait. Night setting — deploying lines after dusk — reduces turtle bycatch substantially. Mandatory observer coverage improves compliance but remains below 100% on most fleets.

Billfish bycatch is significant — blue marlin, striped marlin and sailfish caught incidentally on swordfish and tuna longlines. Many are released dead or discarded.

## Mercury and consumption
Swordfish accumulate methylmercury — a neurotoxin biomagnified through food chains. Large, old individuals carry concentrations exceeding safe consumption limits set by the US FDA and European food safety authorities. Pregnant women and children are advised to avoid swordfish entirely.

Mercury enters oceans from coal burning, mining and industrial discharge. Climate change may alter mercury methylation rates in marine systems. Swordfish, as apex predators, concentrate toxins over decades of feeding.

Sustainable consumption means choosing smaller fish, limiting portion frequency and preferring harpoon-caught or well-managed Atlantic stock. Certification programmes help identify lower-impact sources.

## Conservation and responsible fishing
Global Least Concern status should not obscure regional overfishing and bycatch crises. Mediterranean swordfish need stricter quotas and enforcement. Longline fleets must adopt circle hooks, night setting and shark retention bans.

Marine protected areas and time-area closures reduce fishing pressure on spawning aggregations. Electronic monitoring and vessel tracking combat IUU fishing.

Readers can reduce impact by choosing harpoon-caught or certified swordfish, avoiding Mediterranean stock, and supporting fisheries reform that addresses shark bycatch. WARN publishes this swordfish guide as free public education about open-ocean fisheries and their hidden toll on sharks and turtles.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this swordfish guide as free public education. Open-ocean fisheries affect swordfish, sharks, turtles and marlin — understanding bycatch helps readers make informed seafood choices.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/swordfish): Swordfish — wildlife guide.

## Are swordfish endangered?
Globally Least Concern (IUCN, 2021) after Atlantic stock recovery. Mediterranean stock is overfished. Pacific and Indian Ocean stocks are poorly assessed.

## Do swordfish stab prey with their bill?
Swordfish slash sideways through schools to stun fish and squid rather than spearing individual prey. The bill also may reduce drag and serve in display.

## What is swordfish bycatch?
Sharks, marlin, turtles and seabirds caught on longlines set for swordfish. An estimated 100,000+ sharks die on tuna and swordfish longlines annually.

## Is swordfish safe to eat?
Large swordfish accumulate mercury. Pregnant women and children should avoid it. Most countries advise limiting consumption frequency for others.

## What do swordfish eat?
Swordfish eat 800 m — Diving depth — among deepest of billfish. The swordfish (Xiphias gladius) is a Least Concern billfish of global oceans, managed in the Atlantic but overfished in the Mediterranean; longline fisheries cause shark and turtle bycatch.

## Where do swordfish live?
Swordfish live in Tropical and temperate oceans worldwide — Atlantic, Pacific and Indian. The swordfish (Xiphias gladius) is a Least Concern billfish of global oceans, managed in the Atlantic but overfished in the Mediterranean; longline fisheries cause shark and turtle bycatch.

## Are swordfish dangerous?
Swordfish are not generally dangerous to people. The swordfish (Xiphias gladius) is a Least Concern billfish of global oceans, managed in the Atlantic but overfished in the Mediterranean; longline fisheries cause shark and turtle bycatch. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do swordfish live?
A precise wild lifespan for swordfish is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The swordfish (Xiphias gladius) is a Least Concern billfish of global oceans, managed in the Atlantic but overfished in the Mediterranean; longline fisheries cause shark and turtle bycatch. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a swordfish?
A Swordfish is about Up to 4.5 m including bill. The swordfish (Xiphias gladius) is a Least Concern billfish of global oceans, managed in the Atlantic but overfished in the Mediterranean; longline fisheries cause shark and turtle bycatch.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/marlin): Marlin — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a Vulnerable billfish of tropical oceans, declining from longline bycatch and overfishing; white and striped marlin face similar pressures.

## Introduction
Marlin are among the largest and most spectacular billfish — powerful predators with spear-like bills, towering dorsal fins and metallic blue colouration. The blue marlin, reaching over 450 kg, roams tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide. Listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, blue marlin populations have declined from decades of overfishing by longline fleets targeting tuna and swordfish. Marlin are caught as bycatch on tuna longlines — often dead on arrival — and targeted by sport fisheries that release some catches but kill trophy fish. White marlin and striped marlin face similar pressures. All marlin species are slow-growing and late-maturing, making recovery from depletion difficult.

## Takeaway
Blue marlin are Vulnerable — declining from longline bycatch and directed fishing.

## Takeaway
Marlin are caught incidentally on tuna and swordfish longlines worldwide.

## Takeaway
Sport fishing targets marlin — catch-and-release reduces but does not eliminate mortality.

## Takeaway
Marlin are slow-growing — maturity at 2–4 years; recovery from overfishing takes decades.

## Takeaway
White marlin is Near Threatened; striped marlin is Data Deficient.

## Takeaway
Circle hooks and fishery closures reduce marlin bycatch on longlines.

## Giants of the billfish family
Marlin belong to family Istiophoridae alongside sailfish and spearfish. The blue marlin — Makaira nigricans in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific — is the largest, with females exceeding 450 kg and 5 metres including bill. Metallic blue-black upper body, silver flanks and a rigid, sail-like dorsal fin define the species.

Marlin use their bills to stun tuna, mackerel, squid and dorado — slashing through schools or striking individual prey. They are among the fastest fish, capable of bursts exceeding 110 km/h. Endothermy maintains muscle and eye temperature for high-performance hunting in cool deep water.

White marlin (Kajikia albida) and striped marlin (Kajikia audax) are smaller relatives. Black marlin (Istiompax indica) of the Indo-Pacific is the heaviest bony fish recorded — over 700 kg.

## Longline bycatch crisis
The primary threat to marlin is incidental capture on pelagic longlines set for tuna and swordfish. Hundreds of thousands of hooks deployed daily across tropical oceans catch marlin alongside target species. Most marlin are dead when lines are retrieved — discarded or landed as low-value byproduct.

ICCAT and other regional fisheries bodies require some bycatch mitigation — circle hooks, dehooking tools, release protocols — but compliance and observer coverage remain insufficient. Estimated blue marlin bycatch in the Atlantic alone exceeds thousands of tonnes annually.

Directed marlin fisheries — commercial harpoon and gillnet — add mortality in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Data reporting is poor; IUU fishing compounds uncertainty.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/marlin): Marlin — wildlife guide.

## Sport fishing and trophy pressure
Marlin are premier sport fish — the centrepiece of tournaments from Kona to Cairns. Billfish tournaments historically killed all catches for weigh-in; modern events increasingly practice tag-and-release. Tagging programmes provide migration data — blue marlin cross entire ocean basins.

Catch-and-release is not mortality-free. Fight duration, hook location and handling stress kill a proportion of released fish — estimates range from 5% to 30% depending on methods. Circle hooks in the jaw reduce deep-hooking mortality compared with J-hooks.

Trophy fishing removes the largest, most fecund females — disproportionately impacting breeding stock. Minimum size limits and slot limits protect spawning-capable individuals.

## Conservation status and management
The IUCN lists blue marlin as Vulnerable with a decreasing population trend. White marlin is Near Threatened. Striped marlin is Data Deficient — insufficient data for assessment despite heavy fisheries pressure. Black marlin is Data Deficient.

CITES Appendix II regulates international trade in blue marlin parts. Regional management through ICCAT, IOTC and WCPFC sets bycatch limits and retention bans in some fisheries. Retention bans — requiring marlin to be released — reduce landings but not necessarily hooking mortality.

Time-area closures around spawning grounds, mandatory observer coverage and gear modification offer the best prospects for reducing mortality while maintaining tuna fisheries.

## Protecting billfish for the future
Marlin are apex predators — indicators of healthy open-ocean ecosystems. Their decline signals unsustainable extraction from pelagic food webs shared with tuna, sharks and turtles.

Consumers can reduce marlin mortality indirectly by choosing pole-and-line tuna, supporting fisheries with bycatch limits and avoiding seafood from IUU sources. Anglers should use circle hooks, minimise fight time and support tournaments with mandatory release.

WARN publishes this marlin guide as free public education about billfish caught in the crossfire of industrial longline fisheries — Vulnerable giants whose recovery depends on bycatch reform across the world's tuna fleets.

## WARN work
WARN publishes this marlin guide as free public education. Billfish bycatch on tuna longlines is a hidden crisis — reducing it protects marlin, sharks and ocean ecosystem integrity.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/marlin): Marlin — wildlife guide.

## Are marlin endangered?
Blue marlin is Vulnerable (IUCN, 2019) with a decreasing trend. White marlin is Near Threatened. Striped and black marlin are Data Deficient.

## Why are marlin declining?
Incidental capture on tuna and swordfish longlines is the primary cause. Directed fisheries, sport fishing mortality and slow growth compound the decline.

## What is marlin bycatch?
Marlin caught unintentionally on longlines set for tuna and swordfish. Most die on the line. Atlantic blue marlin bycatch alone exceeds thousands of tonnes annually.

## Do sport fishermen kill marlin?
Modern tournaments increasingly use tag-and-release, but fight stress and hook injury kill 5–30% of released fish. Trophy fishing removes large breeding females.

## Where do marlins live?
Marlins live in Tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide — Atlantic, Pacific and Indian. The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a Vulnerable billfish of tropical oceans, declining from longline bycatch and overfishing; white and striped marlin face similar pressures.

## Are marlins dangerous?
Marlins are not generally dangerous to people. The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a Vulnerable billfish of tropical oceans, declining from longline bycatch and overfishing; white and striped marlin face similar pressures. Give wild individuals space and do not corner or handle them.

## How long do marlins live?
A precise wild lifespan for marlins is not firmly established in the sources cited on this guide. The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a Vulnerable billfish of tropical oceans, declining from longline bycatch and overfishing; white and striped marlin face similar pressures. Where longevity figures appear in the literature they vary by region, sex and whether animals are wild or captive.

## How big is a marlin?
A Marlin is about Up to 450 kg (blue marlin females). The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a Vulnerable billfish of tropical oceans, declining from longline bycatch and overfishing; white and striped marlin face similar pressures. Conservation status: Vulnerable — decreasing.

## What do marlins eat?
Marlin use their bills to stun tuna, mackerel, squid and dorado — slashing through schools or striking individual prey. The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a Vulnerable billfish of tropical oceans, declining from longline bycatch and overfishing; white and striped marlin face similar pressures.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/angelfish): Angelfish — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) are tall Amazonian cichlids kept worldwide in aquariums; the many 'varieties' are line-bred colour and fin forms of one species, needing a tall planted tank of 110+ litres and calm tankmates.

## Introduction
The freshwater angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) is a tall, disc-shaped cichlid from the slow waters of the Amazon basin, and one of the most popular aquarium fish in the world. Its flattened body and trailing fins let it slip between submerged plant stems, where it hunts small prey and guards its eggs. Generations of aquarium breeding have produced colour and finnage varieties — silver, zebra, marble, koi, gold, platinum, veil and albino — that are all the same species, not separate fish. Despite an angelic look, these are territorial cichlids with real needs: a tall, warm, well-filtered, planted tank and calm tankmates. WARN publishes this guide as free, honest fishkeeping education.

## Takeaway
Almost all aquarium angelfish are line-bred varieties of one species, Pterophyllum scalare.

## Takeaway
They are cichlids, not relatives of marine angelfish, and can be territorial.

## Takeaway
Their tall body needs a tall tank — height matters as much as length.

## Takeaway
Fancy fin types (veil) are delicate and need gentle, non-fin-nipping tankmates.

## Takeaway
Angelfish are devoted parents, fanning and guarding their eggs and fry.

## Takeaway
Stable, warm, well-filtered water prevents most common diseases.

## Wild angelfish of the Amazon
Pterophyllum scalare lives in the slow, warm, often tannin-stained waters of the Amazon basin, among submerged roots and tall plants. Its laterally flattened body and long fins are camouflage and manoeuvring gear for life among vertical stems, where the dark vertical bars break up its outline. Wild angelfish hunt small invertebrates and fish fry and form pairs that jointly defend a territory and their eggs.

The wild 'silver' form is the basis of every aquarium variety. Two close relatives — the larger Pterophyllum altum and the smaller P. leopoldi — are also kept by specialists but are far less common than the line-bred scalare varieties.

## Varieties are line-bred, not separate species
The silver, zebra, marble, koi, gold, platinum, veil and albino angelfish sold in shops are colour and fin mutations selectively bred from one species. Colour genes stack — a fish can be koi and veil at once — so the trade names describe appearance, not ancestry. None of these are separate species, and all share identical care needs.

Because the varieties interbreed freely, 'designer' angelfish appear constantly. Buyers should choose healthy, well-shaped fish from a responsible source rather than chasing rare patterns from poor stock.

## Tank, water and tankmates
Angelfish grow tall, so a single pair needs a tall aquarium of at least 110 litres, planted and gently filtered, with stable warm water around 25–28°C. They are cichlids and can be territorial, especially when breeding, and may eat very small fish such as neon tetras. Good tankmates are calm, similarly sized and will not nip the long fins of veil varieties.

Sharp décor should be avoided to protect trailing fins. Overstocking, poor filtration and unstable water cause most health problems, so steady maintenance matters more than gadgets.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/angelfish): Angelfish — wildlife guide.

## Health and responsible fishkeeping
Common angelfish problems — ich (white spot), fin rot, swim bladder issues, hexamita and ammonia poisoning — are nearly all linked to water quality, diet and stress. Cycling the tank before stocking, regular partial water changes, quarantining new fish and avoiding overfeeding prevent the majority of disease.

Responsible fishkeeping also means buying captive-bred stock, never releasing aquarium fish into the wild (released pets and plants cause ecological harm), and planning for an adult fish that can live 8–10 years, not the tiny juvenile in the shop bag.

## Explore angelfish varieties on WARN
WARN's angelfish variety library at /wildlife-guides/angelfish covers line-bred colour and fin forms — including the wild-type Silver, the Marble, the Koi and the Platinum, with further forms added as suitable human-free photos are sourced — each with how the colour or fin type arises, adult size, tank needs and common health issues.

The library helps aquarists understand that these fish are all one Amazon cichlid, and choose and care for them responsibly.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free companion-animal and aquarium welfare education. Understanding that fish are sentient animals with real environmental needs — not disposable decorations — is the first step to responsible fishkeeping and to refusing the wild collection and release that harm freshwater ecosystems.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/angelfish): Angelfish — wildlife guide.

## Are angelfish varieties different species?
No. Almost all aquarium angelfish are line-bred colour and fin varieties of a single Amazonian cichlid, Pterophyllum scalare. The colours and fin shapes are selectively bred traits, not separate species, and all share the same care needs.

## What size tank do angelfish need?
Because angelfish grow tall and are territorial cichlids, a single pair needs a tall aquarium of at least 110 litres, and groups need more. Avoid sharp décor and tankmates that nip long fins.

## Are angelfish aggressive?
Angelfish are cichlids and can be territorial, especially when breeding, and may eat very small fish. They do best with calm, similarly sized, non-fin-nipping tankmates in a planted tank.

## How long do angelfish live?
With stable, warm, well-filtered water and a good diet, angelfish commonly live 8 to 10 years. Most early deaths come from poor water quality, overfeeding or stress rather than old age.

## What do angelfish eat?
They are cichlids and can be territorial, especially when breeding, and may eat very small fish such as neon tetras. Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) are tall Amazonian cichlids kept worldwide in aquariums; the many 'varieties' are line-bred colour and fin forms of one species, needing a tall planted tank of 110+ litres and calm tankmates.

## Where can I read about angelfish varieties?
WARN's angelfish guide links to a variety library covering line-bred colour and fin forms such as the silver, marble, koi and platinum, with more added as images are sourced — each with care and health notes.

## Where do freshwater angelfish live?
Freshwater Angelfish live in South America — Amazon basin (wild type); aquariums worldwide. Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) are tall Amazonian cichlids kept worldwide in aquariums; the many 'varieties' are line-bred colour and fin forms of one species, needing a tall planted tank of 110+ litres and calm tankmates.

## How big is a freshwater angelfish?
A Freshwater Angelfish is about ~15 cm long, up to ~20 cm tall with fins. Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) are tall Amazonian cichlids kept worldwide in aquariums; the many 'varieties' are line-bred colour and fin forms of one species, needing a tall planted tank of 110+ litres and calm tankmates.